Abstract

Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying cellular signaling pathways is fundamental to elucidating how cells interpret and respond to external stimuli. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the intricate processes involved, from receptor activation to cellular response. We discuss the diverse array of receptors, including G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), and ion channels, highlighting their roles in initiating signal transduction. The review further explores key intracellular signaling molecules such as second messengers, protein kinases, and phosphatases, detailing their roles in propagating and modulating signals. Emphasis is placed on the regulatory mechanisms that ensure precise signaling and cellular responses, including feedback loops and cross-talk between pathways. Additionally, we examine recent advances in molecular imaging and omics technologies that have enhanced our ability to study these pathways in real-time. By integrating insights from these technological advances, we aim to present a holistic view of cellular signaling mechanisms, with implications for developing targeted therapies for various diseases.