ISSN: 2155-6199

Journal of Bioremediation & Biodegradation
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Influence of Cassava Mill Effluent on the Growth Rate of Two Selected Arable Crop Species (Zea mays and Vigna unguiculata L)

Igwe CE1 and Azorji JN2*
1Department of Biological Sciences, Hezekiah University, Umudi-Imo State, Nigeria
2Department of Environmental Resource Management, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria
*Corresponding Author: Azorji JN, Department of Environmental Resource Management, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria, Tel: 234 903 000 0852, Email: jnazorji17@gmail.com

Received: 10-May-2018 / Accepted Date: 24-May-2018 / Published Date: 28-May-2018 DOI: 10.4172/2155-6199.1000444

Keywords: Cassava effluent; Hydrogen cyanide; Zea mays; Vigna unguiculata L

Introduction

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz, synonymous with Manihot utilissima Rhol) belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is mainly a food crop whose tubers are harvested between 7-13 months based on the cultivars planted. The tubers are quite rich in carbohydrates (85-90%) with very small amount of protein (1.3%) in addition to cyanogenic glucoside (Linamarin and Lotaustiallin) [1,2]. This high carbohydrate content makes cassava a major food item especially for the low income earners in most tropical countries especially Africa and Asia [3]. The edible tubers are processed into various forms which include chips, pellets, cakes and flour. The flour could be fried to produce garri or steeped in water to ferment to produce fufu when cooked [4,5]. Cassava is one of the over 3000 types of plants that produce cyanogenic compounds [6,7] releases hydrogen cyanide (HCN) upon hydrolysis. This process of HCN production is known as cyanogenesis and makes cassava a potential toxic food to humans [8].

Fermentation is one of the oldest and most important traditional food processing and preservation techniques. Food fermentations involve the use of microorganisms and enzymes for the production of foods with distinct quality attributes that are quite different from the original agricultural raw material. The conversion of cassava (Manihot esculenta , Crantz syn. Manihot utilissima Pohl) to garri illustrates the importance of traditional fermentations.

Cassava tubers are rich in starch (20-30%) and, with the possible exception of sugar cane; cassava is considered as the highest producer of carbohydrates among crop plants. Without the benefits of modern science, a process for detoxifying cassava roots by converting potentially toxic roots into garri was developed, presumably empirically, in West Africa. The process involves fermenting cassava pulp from peeled, grated roots in cloth bags and after dewatering, the mash is sifted and fried. Microbial fermentations have traditionally played important roles in food processing for thousands of years. Most marketed cassava products like “gari”, “fufu”, “pupuru”, “apu” etc., in Africa are obtained through fermentation. The importance of fermentation in cassava processing is based on its ability to reduce the cyanogenic glucosides to relatively insignificant levels. Unlike alcoholic fermentation, the biochemistry and microbiology is only superficially understood, but it is believed that some cyanidrophilic/cyanide tolerant microorganisms effects breakdown of the cyanogenic glucoside. Generally, fermented cassava products store better and often are low in residual cyanide content. The highly offensive odor emanating from the fermenting effluent calls for regulation in the discharge of the waste generated [9]. Cassava mill effluent can cause various environmental problems ranging from air pollution through the generation of offensive odor, soil degradation, also causing illness by promoting the breed of mosquito in most areas, cassava mills are mainly on small scale basis, owned and managed by individuals who have no basic knowledge of environmental protection. Though on small scale basis, there are many of them, which when put together, create enormous impact on the environment. This work therefore is aimed at assessing the effect of cassava mill effluents on the physicochemical properties of the soil and its effect on the growth rate of arable cereals (maize and cowpea).

Materials and Methods

Study area

The study was conducted by random collection of soil samples from three selected cassava mills (Amaoba, Umuarigha I and Umuarigha II) within Ikwuano L.G.A of Abia State.

Ikwuano is a local government area with its headquarters at Isiala Oboro. It has an area of 218 km2 and population of 137,933. Ikwuano falls with latitude of 050 270 N and longitude of 070 340 E. It is characterized by bimodal rainfall, high temperature 290-320 with relative humility. The people are known for agricultural and marketing activities while the soil texture is sandy loamy.

Sample collection/Preliminary soil analysis

Preliminary soil analysis was carried out on both soil samples of the three different cassava mill sites and control sites to determine the physicochemical properties of the soil. Soil samples were randomly collected from the three different cassava mill sites at 15 cm depth from the top soil; same was done for the control at the Forestry Nursery. The soil samples were air dried and labeled accordingly. (Sample A, Sample B, Sample C and Control) before taken to the laboratory for analysis.

Seed sample collection and viability test

Seeds (maize and cowpea) were bought from Ndioro market in Ikwuano LGA and viability test was done by placing the seed into a container filled to water for some period of time (5 mins) so as to select the one that is fit for the study.

Nursery planting

Twelve poly-pots were filled with 5 kg of uncontaminated soil each for corn seeds; same was repeated for the cowpea seeds at the nursery department of Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, to stabilize the species before transplanting.

Soil sample collection and preparation

Soil was randomly collected from three different sampling cassava mill sites at 15 cm depth from the top soil where evidently shown cassava effluent discharge. 18 poly-pots were filled with 5 kg of the soil from the three different cassava mill sites [six for each site]. Another set of 6 poly-pots was filled with 5 kg of garden soil (uncontaminated soil) which served as control for the experiment.

Seedling transplanting to the treatment poly-pots

After two weeks of planting at the nursery department, the seedlings of each species were transplanted into the experimental poly-pots according to their soil profiles. The experimental setup was watered at two Days interval, while poly-pots were perforated at the base to avoid water logging, the experimental was allowed for a period of eight weeks.

Method of data collection/analysis

The plants height and stem girth was measured in weekly intervals using a tape and number of leaves was counted and recorded. The experiment was laid out in a complete randomize block design (CRBD) with four replicates and three treatments. The result which was obtained was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Mean separation was done using fisher LSD at 0.05% probability two way mean value was subjected to studentized T-test which showed that plants planted on a cassava mill soils had a higher growth rate than those of the normal garden soil.

Results

The result (Table 1) of the plant (Cowpea) of the plant length shows that there was no significant difference (P>0.05) from the length of control test crop during the period of the first week to the fourth week, this is attributed to the higher resistance of cowpea. From the fifth week to the eight week result shown that there was significant differences in the plant samples from the control which is accounted for the rapid growth in acidic solid.

Treatments Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8
Control 11.40 ± 1.10b 14.93 ± 0.90a 18.30 ± 1.11a 21.73 ± 0.25a 24.30 ± 0.35b 28.40 ± 1.13b 31.80 ± 0.53b 35.17 ± 0.15b
Sample a 10.53 ± 0.76c 14.43 ± 0.60c 17.70 ± 1.04c 21.10 ± 1.35c 23.53 ± 0.84c 27.63 ± 1.18c 31.30 ± 0.30c 35.00 ± 0.40c
Sample b 10.27 ± 3.16d 14.37 ± 2.61d 18.13 ± 1.96b 21.63 ± 1.99b 25.07 ± 1.10a 29.20 ± 1.65a 32.73 ± 1.63a 37.03 ± 2.42a
Sample c 11.77 ± 2.04a 14.60 ± 2.76b 16.70 ± 3.40d 18.40 ± 3.31d 20.67 ± 2.96d 23.40 ± 3.04d 25.90 ± 4.27d 27.93 ± 4.91d

Table 1: Analysis for Cowpea Length. Keywords: a, b, c, d=Means with same superscript is not significantly different at P=0.005 level of significance. Control=Uncontaminated soil; Sample A=Cassava mill soil from Amaoba; Sample B=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha I; Sample C=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha II.

The results (Table 2) show that stem girth (cowpea) had no significant difference from the first week to the fourth week, from the fifth week to the eight week result recorded that there was a significant difference in growth rate of the stem girth of the samples from the control.

Treatments Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8
Control 2.03 ± 0.25b 3.10 ± 0.00a 3.57 ± 0.25c 4.30 ± 0.01a 4.57 ± 0.06b 4.83 ± 0.25b 5.30 ± 0.00c 5.60 ± 0.00c
Sample a 1.87 ± 0.12d 3.00 ± 0.17b 3.67 ± 0.12b 4.13 ± 0.29c 4.40 ± 0.17c 4.77 ± 0.29c 5.33 ± 0.58b 5.60 ± 0.00b
Sample b 2.00 ± 0.50c 2.80 ± 0.50d 3.67 ± 0.40a 4.27 ± 0.29b 4.73 ± 0.12a 5.00 ± 0.36a 5.40 ± 0.17a 5.67 ± 0.12a
Sample c 2.03 ± 0.40a 2.97 ± 0.29c 3.50 ± 0.53d 3.73 ± 0.51d 4.10 ± 0.50d 4.43 ± 0.23d 4.67 ± 0.21d 4.97 ± 0.29d

Table 2: Analysis for Cowpea stems Growth. Keywords: a, b, c, d=Means with same superscript is not significantly different at P=0.005 level of significance. Control=Uncontaminated soil; Sample A=Cassava mill soil from Amaoba; Sample B=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha I; Sample C=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha II.

The result (Table 3) of the number of leaves (cowpea) show that there was no significant difference from the control during the period of the first week to third week, the growth rate of the number of leaves were same thing this weeks, from the fourth week to the eight week, the result shoed that there was a significant difference from the control, the three samples produced more leave than that of the control.

Treatments Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8
Control 6.00 ± 1.73bc 9.00 ± 1.73b 12.00 ± 1.00b 15.33 ± 1.53b 18.33 ± 1.15b 21.33 ± 0.58c 24.67 ± 0.58c 28.67 ± 0.58c
Sample a 6.00 ± 1.73bc 7.33 ± 3.79c 11.00 ± 4.00c 14.33 ± 4.51c 18.00 ± 4.00c 21.67 ± 3.06b 25.33 ± 3.51a 28.67 ± 2.89b
Sample b 7.00 ± 1.73a 10.33 ± 1.15a 13.00 ± 1.00a 16.33 ± 1.53a 19.00 ± 1.00a 21.67 ± 1.53a 25.00 ± 1.00b 28.67 ± 1.15a
Sample c 6.00 ± 1.73b 7.00 ± 1.00d 9.00 ± 0.00d 8.67 ± 1.53d 11.33 ± 0.58d 15.33 ± 0.58d 17.33 ± 1.15d 19.67 ± 1.53d

Table 3: Analysis for Cowpea and number of leaves. Keywords: a, b, c, d=Means with same superscript is not significantly different at P=0.005 level of significance. Control=Uncontaminated soil; Sample A=Cassava mill soil from Amaoba; Sample B=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha I; Sample C=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha II.

The result (Table 4) of the plant (maize) length shows that that there was a significant difference (P>0.05) between the growth rate of the samples from the control for the period of the first week to the eight week. Rapid growth rate recorded is attributed to increase of soil nutrients by the cyanide content.

Treatments Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8
Control 11.07 ± 0.90a 14.43 ± 0.59a 18.30 ± 1.61a 23.13 ± 2.87a 27.63 ± 3.35a 31.67 ± 2.93a 35.27 ± 2.73a 37.27 ± 2.02a
Sample a 8.87 ± 1.63d 12.53 ± 1.48d 15.37 ± 1.46c 19.70 ± 0.96c 23.10 ± 1.35c 27.07 ± 1.92c 31.13 ± 2.72c 33.83 ± 3.29c
Sample b 10.47 ± 0.92c 14.13 ± 0.76b 18.00 ± 1.00b 21.43 ± 1.56b 24.40 ± 1.66b 28.30 ± 1.93b 31.90 ± 2.79b 36.27 ± 2.19b
Sample c 10.57 ± 0.40b 12.93 ± 0.40c 15.17 ± 1.23d 16.77 ± 1.57d 19.57 ± 1.59d 22.33 ± 0.65d 24.63 ± 1.44d 27.50 ± 1.57d

Table 4: Analysis for Maize length. Keywords: a, b, c, d=Means with same superscript is not significantly different at P=0.005 level of significance; Control=Uncontaminated soil; Sample A=Cassava mill soil from Amaoba; Sample B=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha I; Sample C=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha II.

Result (Table 5) show that stem girth (maize) had no significant difference on the first week and from the third week to the eight week there was a significant difference in the stem girth of the samples from the control.

Treatments Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8
Control 2.60 ± 0.17a 3.00 ± 0.17a 3.57 ± 0.25a 4.20 ± 0.10a 4.83 ± 0.25a 5.13 ± 0.15a 5.83 ± 0.25a 6.47 ± 0.12a
Sample a 2.20 ± 0.53d 2.70 ± 0.35c 3.17 ± 0.12d 3.93 ± 0.15c 4.30 ± 0.00c 4.77 ± 0.15c 5.33 ± 0.46c 5.90 ± 0.53c
Sample b 2.37 ± 0.40b 2.90 ± 0.17b 3.47 ± 0.29b 4.00 ± 0.17b 4.50 ± 0.17b 4.90 ± 0.17b 5.53 ± 0.38b 6.10 ± 0.44b
Sample c 2.27 ± 0.25c 2.53 ± 0.06d 3.29 ± 0.10c 3.90 ± 0.17d 3.90 ± 0.17d 4.33 ± 0.06d 4.57 ± 0.06d 4.70 ± 0.10d

Table 5: Analysis for maize stem growth. Keywords: a, b, c, d=Means with same superscript is not significantly different at P=0.005 level of significance; Control=Uncontaminated soil; Sample A=Cassava mill soil from Amaoba; Sample B=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha I; Sample C=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha II.

The result (Table 6) of the number of leaves (maize) shows that in the first week, there was no significant difference (p<0.05). There was a significant difference from the second week to the fourth week; the growth rate of the leaves was high. The fifth week to the eight week, the growth rate of the number of leaves show that there was no significant difference.

Treatments Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8
Control 4.00 ± 0.00a 5.00 ± 0.00a 6.00 ± 1.00b 7.00 ± 0.00a 7.67 ± 0.58c 9.33 ± 0.58a 9.33 ± 0.58a 10.33 ± 1.15a
Sample a 3.33 ± 0.58d 4.00 ± 1.00c 5.00 ± 0.00c 6.33 ± 0.58c 8.00 ± 1.00a 9.00 ± 1.73b 9.00 ± 1.73b 9.67 ± 2.08c
Sample b 3.33 ± 0.58c 4.33 ± 0.58b 6.00 ± 0.00a 6.67 ± 0.58b 7.67 ± 0.58b 8.67 ± 1.53c 8.67 ± 1.53c 10.00 ± 1.00b
Sample c 3.33 ± 0.58b 3.67 ± 0.58d 4.33 ± 0.58d 5.33 ± 0.58d 6.00 ± 1.73d 7.00 ± 1.73d 7.00 ± 1.73d 8.00 ± 1.00d

Table 6: Analysis for maize number of leaves. Keywords: a, b, c, d=Means with same superscript is not significantly different at P=0.005 level of significance; Control=Uncontaminated soil; Sample A=Cassava mill soil from Amaoba; Sample B=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha I; Sample C=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha II.

The result (Table 7) shows that the soil samples had a significant difference (p>0.05) from the control in all soil properties there were analyzed.

Treatments Soil pH P N OC OM Ca Mg K Na EA EC CN
Control 5.21 ± 0.13d 19.73 ± 0.11d 0.08 ± 0.00d 1.14 ± 0.03d 1.92 ± 0.01d 7.85 ± 0.21c* 2.15 ± 0.21d 0.18 ± 0.01d 0.33 ± 0.01d 0.99 ± 0.01a 12.55 ± 0.14d 0.00 ± 0.00d
Sample a 6.35 ± 0.71b 28.50 ± 0.71a 0.20 ± 0.00a 2.83 ± 0.01a 4.87 ± 0.01a 12.75 ± 0.07a 5.85 ± 0.07a 0.77 ± 0.01a 0.53 ± 0.01a 0.19 ± 0.01b 20.05 ± 0.01a 6.80 ± 0.14a
Sample b 6.75 ± 0.71a 27.65 ± 0.21c 0.13 ± 0.00c 1.54 ± 0.01c 2.66 ± 0.02c 7.45 ± 0.07c 4.70 ± 0.14c 0.47 ± 0.01c 0.38 ± 0.01c 0.13 ± 0.01c 13.17 ± 0.01c 5.35 ± 0.07b
Sample c 6.15 ± 0.71c 28.15 ± 0.35b 0.19 ± 0.00b 1.85 ± 0.01b 3.18 ± 0.01b 9.65 ± 0.07b 5.30 ± 0.14b 0.67 ± 0.01b 0.42 ± 0.00b 0.23 ± 0.01a 16.23 ± 0.13b 4.900 ± 0.14c

Table 7: Preliminary Soil Analysis. a, b, c, d=Means with same superscript is not significantly different at P=0.005 level of significance. Control=Uncontaminated soil; Sample A=Cassava mill soil from Amaoba; Sample B=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha I; Sample C=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha II; P=Phosphorus; N=Nitrogen; OC=Organic Carbon; OM=Organic Matter; Ca=Calcium; Mg=Magnesium; K=Potassium; Na=Sodium; EA=Exchangeable Acidity; EC=Electrical Conductivity; CN=Cyanide.

The result (Table 8) shows that there was a significant difference (p>0.05) from the control in the soil properties that were analyzed.

Treatments Soil pH P N OC OM Ca Mg K Na EA EC CN
Control 4.89 ± 0.02d 15.26 ± 0.64d 0.02 ± 0.01d 0.63 ± 0.03d 1.63 ± 0.02c 5.31 ± 0.01c 1.41 ± 0.01d 0.08 ± 0.00d 0.23 ± 0.01c* 0.62 ± 0.01c* 9.14 ± 0.01d 0.00 ± 0.00d
Sample A 5.85 ± 0.07b 25.85 ± 0.71a 0.14 ± 0.00a 2.68 ± 0.01a 4.62 ± 0.00a 9.75 ± 0.71a 4.25 ± 0.71b 0.58 ± 0.01a 0.38 ±  0.00a 0.75 ± 0.14a 15.60 ± 0.14a 4.70 ± 0.14a
Sample b 5.80 ± 0.14c 23.40 ± 0.71c 0.08 ± 0.00c 0.85 ± 0.01c 1.45 ± 0.00d* 5.25 ± 0.71d* 3.80 ± 0.14c 0.32 ± 0.01c 0.21 ± 0.00d* 0.54 ± 0.46d* 10.48 ± 0.14c 4.20 ± 0.25c
Sample c 5.85 ± 0.71a 24.85 ± 0.71b 0.10 ± 0.00b 1.04 ± 0.01b 1.78 ± 0.00b 6.85 ± 0.71b 4.45 ± 0.71a 0.49 ± 0.14b 0.26 ± 0.01b 0.72 ± 0.00b 12.62 ± 0.78b 4.55 ± 0.35b

Table 8: Post-Soil Analysis. Keywords: a, b, c, d= Means with same superscript is not significantly different at P= 0.005 level of significance; Control=Uncontaminated soil; Sample A=Cassava mill soil from Amaoba; Sample B=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha I; Sample C=Cassava mill soil from Umuarigha II; P=Phosphorus; N=Nitrogen; OC=Organic Carbon; OM=Organic Matter; Ca=Calcium; Mg=Magnesium; K=Pottasium; Na=Sodium; A=Exchangeable Acidity; EC=Electrical Conductivity; CN=Cyanide.

Discussion

Evaluation of the soil physiochemical properties

The present result obtained from preliminary soil analysis show a pH soil with mean of (6.12 ± 0.61) for the samples which was less acidic to that of the control with mean (5.21 ± 0.13). This indicates that the soil pH of the control is more acidic than that of the samples, there is no doubt this is due to the presence of hydrogen cyanide present in the cassava effluent that has been continuously discharged to the soil. According to Ogboghodo et al. [9], an increase in the soil pH level account for the increase in the nutrient content of the soil. The present result shows that exchangeable base (Na, Ca, Mg and K) and other soil nutrients; organic carbon, phosphorus had an increase value than that of the control, this is predicted to the discharge of cassava effluent which increase the soil pH, microbial population and also microbial activities in the soil which lead to the increase in the soil nutrient content.

The result of the post soil analysis shows that there was a decrease in the soil pH value of both the soil samples and the control which proportionally lead to the decrease in the nutrient content of both the samples and the control. This is credited to the plant uptake of hydrogen cyanide that contributed to the high growth performance of the test crops. Also some physical and natural factors such rainfall, temperature, wind contributed to decrease of the hydrogen cyanide which adversely reduced the soil nutrient content.

Determination of cassava effluent impact

In the present result the soil was observed to have an increase in the nutrient content which was attributed to the discharge of cassava effluent on the soil, similar finding was observed by Ogbohodo et al. [9].

According to Ogbohodo et al. [9] cassava effluent has been found to increase the number of organisms in the soil ecosystem which may be associated with an increase in the soil pH, organic carbon and total nitrogen, cassava effluents contains many nutrients in the order of sodium>potassium>magnesium and iron.

The presence of these entire nutrients was observed in a higher concentration in the soil of the three different samples than that of the control. The high concentration of this nutrient in the soil is attributed to the growth performance of the test crops. The high nutrient content of the cassava effluent reflected in the general growth of both maize and cowpea. Similar findings have been reported by Ogbohodo et al. [9].

Determination of cyanide concentration

On the present result for preliminary soil analysis shows that there is a significant difference in the concentration of hydrogen cyanide of the samples from that of the control, although there was no significant difference in hydrogen cyanide concentration of the three different samples. This may be attributed to some physical and natural factors that might have led to the fermentation of the discharged cassava effluent whereby reducing the concentration of the hydrogen cyanide in the soil.

The post soil analysis shows that there was a decrease in the concentration of the hydrogen cyanide of the three different samples from that of the control which evidently shows that the test crops made use of the hydrogen cyanide for their high growth performance.

Determination of growth rate

The present study made use of two test crops (cowpea and maize). There was an appreciable increase in growth of the crops grown in the soil of the three different samples than that of the control. The growth rate at which the test crops grew was slightly different. The growth rate of cowpea was more rapid than that of the maize. However, there was appreciable increase in the growth of all the parameters measured. The result of this experiment is at variant with the report of Olorunfemi et al. [10] and Ikpe et al. [11] who observed an inhibitory property of cassava processing effluent on growth properties of Zea mays, Sorghum bicolor and Pennisetum americanum .

According to Islam et al. [12] cowpea was observed to have more tolerant to infertile soils and acidic stress. Walter et al. [13] noted that maize performs best in well drained, well aerated, deep warm loams and silt loams. The higher growth rate of cowpea to that of the maize may be attributed to the high tolerance characteristics of cowpea, although maize grow in various type of soils the slow growth rate to the cowpea may be attributed to the type of soil and aeration of the soil. Cyanide had been found to promote the germination of lettuce, amaranthus and lepidium by metabolizing it to cyanoalanine which is in turn converted to asparagine [14]. This may be a reasonable interpretation of the stimulatory effect the cassava mill effluent had on the crop species used in this study.

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Citation: Igwe CE, Azorji JN (2018) Influence of Cassava Mill Effluent on the Growth Rate of Two Selected Arable Crop Species (Zea mays and Vigna unguiculata L). J Bioremediat Biodegrad 9: 444. DOI: 10.4172/2155-6199.1000444

Copyright: © 2018 Igwe CE, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

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