Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics
Open Access

Poultry eating; Poultry consumption; Theory of Reasoned Action; Poultry Consumption style; Poultry eating frequency

India today is one of the world's largest producers of eggs and broiler meat. The poultry industry in India has undergone a major shift in structure and operation during the last two decades transforming from a mere backyard activity into a major industry with the presence of a large number of integrated players. This transformation has involved a sizeable investment in breeding, hatching, rearing and processing activities.

Poultry products are proven to be the single, cheapest, and highest source of all proteins and nutrients required by people of all ages [1]. Poultry meat is highly nutritive, sumptuous, and highly digestible with very low-fat content. The egg is considered a standard relative to other sources of protein, be it animal or plant. It is in fact, a balanced diet [2, 3]. One of the most consumed foods which contribute to the high energy level is poultry food [4]. There is always an increase in the consumption of poultry products seen year after year throughout the world. Relatively low sales prices of chicken meat, in comparison to other types of meat, speak in favor of the increased chicken meat consumption.

Poultry products like eggs and chicken are proven to be the single, cheapest, and highest source of all proteins and nutrients required by people of all ages [1]. Poultry meat is highly nutritive, sumptuous, and digestible with a very low-fat content. The egg is considered a staple diet and a high source of rich protein relative to other sources, particularly in developing countries. Eggs represent a wholesome and balanced diet [2, 3]. Again, poultry intake is one of the richest sources of human energy [4]. While there has been increasing in the consumption of poultry products globally, the challenge is that production and supply far outstripped demand. This has led to a serious glut in the supply of poultry products leading to unremunerated pricing for poultry farmers. This has seriously impacted the global poultry industry which is a significant segment of the world agrarian economy.

Among the many factors that have led to the tepid growth of poultry, consumption is a factor of growing campaigns for vegetarianism in the world. More and more people are switching to vegan diets in the interest of health and fitness. Even non-vegetarians are shunning chicken meat and are confining themselves to a vegetarian diet. Besides, factors like the bird flu pandemic of the 1990s had created a serious image-scare in the minds of the poultry eaters which continues to persist to this day in the covid era. Such a serious impact is proven by the fact that UAE and Gulf countries which are the largest markets for Indian poultry have banned the import of poultry products from India for more than five years which has only now been lifted in January 2022 [5]. Other immoral breeding practices like steroid drugging of poultry feeds have created a serious scare in the consumption of poultry products amongst the highly health-conscious western nations. Some specific cultural myths like poultry intake on the puberty attainment of female children in countries like India have also discouraged the consumption of poultry products and its consequence.

However, the global poultry ecosystem has witnessed enormous changes and improvements by which many of the negative factors surrounding poultry production have been addressed. The scare of the bird flu is now well behind us which has restored confidence in the minds of poultry consuming public more specifically in the highconsuming nations of the Middle East and Europe. Innovations and technological aids in poultry genetics have considerably increased the quality of poultry output. Organizations like the FAO and the National Action Plan for Egg & Poultry in India have prescribed strict standards and supervision of poultry production in India, particularly amongst SME poultry farmers in Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra which are the major poultry producing centres in India.

Given the above scenario, there is now an urgent need to renew and restore consumption levels of poultry products particularly in high poultry producing countries like India. The poultry regulatory and government agencies have launched campaigns to highlight the nutrient potential of poultry products. There is a widespread belief amongst the health-conscious that red meat like beef and mutton are high-risk foods contributing to cardiac diseases. On the contrary chicken meat is considered far healthier and more nutritious and does not have the risk of red meat. In the post-pandemic era, there is greater consciousness amongst people to increase consumption of chicken and eggs considered to be the richest source of proteins so essential for recovery from after-effects of the corona. A recent development has pointed out that vitamin B12 deficiency is the reason for the poor nutrition health of the large veteran health of Indians. No other vegetable or other source has the presence of Vitamin B12 which is richly present in egg whites and chicken meat source or predominantly vegetarian many of the corona related illnesses There is therefore in this scenario an urgent need to revive and boost the consumption of poultry products and in this context understand the factors that influence consumption of poultry products.

It is with the objective that this research has been undertaken to clearly understand the current poultry consumption habits and practices amongst Indians and therefore gain insight on the steps that can be taken to boost the consumption of such products both in the overall interest of the industry and more specifically improving the overall nutrition quality of the young population. By 2023 India is said to have the largest population of Millennial in the age group of 15-25 which will form the backbone of the Indian workforce. This age group incidentally is also the highest consumers of poultry products and this research has focussed largely on understanding the current practices and needs of this segment of the population to have a more healthy and nutrient-rich producing workforce.

In 1999, global production of chickens reached 40 billion, and by 2022 this trend is expected to continue to grow so that poultry meat will become the consumers’ first choice [6,7]. In addition, chicken meat is known for its nutritional quality, as it contains a significant amount of high-quality and easily digestible protein and a low portion of saturated fat. Therefore, chicken meat is recommended for consumption by all age groups [5]. Fresh chicken meat and chicken products are universally popular. This occurrence can be explained by the fact that this meat is not a subject of culturally or religiously set limitations, and it is perceived as a nutritionally valuable foodstuff with low content of fat, in which there are more desirable unsaturated fatty acids than in other types of meat [8,9]. More importantly, quality poultry products are available at affordable prices, although their production costs may vary [10]. If referring to the overall consumption of all types of meat, poultry meat consumption takes one of the leading places in all countries throughout the world [5]. Income increase over some decades has resulted in increased poultry and meat consumption [7].

Easy cooking is also a consideration for poultry meat being more popular among consumers [11]. Comparisons of Irish consumers' beliefs about pork and poultry in the framework of Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) showed that poultry is viewed as the tastier, healthier, and less expensive of the two types of meat while pork is viewed as the safer meat. The influence of attitudes and intention to consume these meats was explored and the findings support the basic structure of the TRA model [12]. Religious belief influences the consumption of poultry products in villages [13].

A strong but unfounded perception against consumption of poultry products is that of the poultry industry indulging in administering hormones, steroids etc. to beef up breeding and production. But the truth is that no hormones are used in poultry production. Even though the truth speaks for itself, the poultry industry must be vocal if we expect the message to be heard, according to Dr Tom Table (Extension Professor), Jessica Wells (Extension Instructor) and Dr Wei Zhai (Assistant Research Professor, Poultry Science) of Mississippi State University Extension Service. The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified certain environmental contaminants as a global concern. These contaminants are capable of harming reproduction and development by altering endocrine functions in humans and wildlife. As the human population grows and livestock production becomes more concentrated, the quantity and concentration of hormones within local areas increases. As a result, many in the poultry field hear the same question with increasing frequency: "Why do you put hormones in the feed to make chickens grow so big and fast?" The fact that the question begins with "why" instead of "do" indicates the level of confusion and misunderstanding of the consuming public. The truth is no hormones have been allowed in poultry production for more than 50 years. Hormone use in poultry production was banned in the United States in the 1950s. Some of the confusion and misunderstanding may stem from the fact that the poultry and beef cattle industries operate under different regulations. While growth hormone use is banned in poultry production, it is a perfectly legal and accepted practice in the beef cattle industry. Unlike poultry (which receive no added growth hormones), most beef cattle fed in the United States do receive a growth-promoting hormone implant, usually when they enter a feed lot.

Therefore, like insulin in humans, growth hormones given to chickens would have to be injected to be effective. And to further complicate matters, research indicates that, to be administered successfully, chickens would need to receive growth hormone injections several times each day. This undertaking is logistically impossible. Most broiler growers have 20,000 or more chickens in each house and numerous houses on the farm. There is no way to catch each chicken in every broiler house numerous times a day and give it a hormone injection. Besides, modern broilers have been genetically selected by primary breeder companies to grow to their physiological limit. The fact is, chickens grow as fast as they should naturally, without the use of growth hormones. Additionally, using hormones to force chickens to grow too quickly would cause increased leg problems and even early death. The poultry industry must do a better job of providing factual information to consumers to combat the confusion, myths and inaccurate information that has become so prevalent regarding hormone use and chicken production. The truth is no hormones are used in poultry production. And even though the truth speaks for itself, the poultry industry must be vocal if we expect the message to be heard [14].

• To understand the tastes of poultry eaters.

• To understand the poultry eating habits among various sections of non-Vegetarian eaters.

The food frequency scale was derived from 20,000 questionnaires were circulated across India, from zero to 80+ years. 15,309 responses were received and 12339 valid responses were considered for analysis. Reliability analysis was carried out to check the validity of the questions asked. As the primary objective was to find out the poultry consumption pattern, Microsoft-Excel was used to analyze the data to arrive at different patterns [15, 16].

Responses represent well dispersed across consumption segments, age groups, geographies, locations, social status, etc. A total of 17 parameters, as shown in Table 2, were used to assess consumption patterns [17, 18].

Table 1: Frequency Distribution.

Table 2: Parameters/variables of the study.

Data Analysis

Frequency Distribution

Below table shows frequency distribution. The parameters used to capture the responses from the respondents are as given below in table (Tables 1-2).

Spss analysis

Reliability analysis: Reliability analysis is done for the specific food consumption-based questions.

• How often do you consume non-vegetarian?

• How often do you consume Egg & Egg Dishes?

• How often do you consume Chicken?

• How often do you consume Mutton/Beef/Fish?

The Table 3 with the Cronbach alpha = 0 .717 proves the questionnaire’s reliability.

Table 3: Reliability Statistics.

Consumption Pattern Analysis

Interpretation: The Table 4 represents Chicken and chicken products are the most preferred food among the population.

Table 4: Eating Habits Details.

Interpretation: The Table 5 confirms that the frequency of chicken food consumption is “Once per week” is highest irrespective of the population is from city, Metropolitan area, or villages.

Table 5: Place of Living-wise, preferred consumption style-wise chicken consumption Pattern.

Interpretation: The Table 6 shows that the students are the major consumers and students also prefer” Cook at Home”.

Table 6: Occupation-wise, Preferred consumption style-wise Egg Consumption pattern.

Interpretation: Among the student consumers, the maximum is in the age group 15-25 (Table 7).

Table 7: Occupation-wise, Age group-wise Preferred Consumption Style Pattern.

Interpretation: Age group-wise Chicken consumption is maximum at 15-25 years and the next is 25-35 years (Table 8). Others include Shawarma, Sausages, and Chicken Fried Rice.

Table 8: Age Group-wise Preferred Consumption Pattern.

Interpretation: The above Table 9 provides the info on the preferred chicken dish among the population. The maximum preferred chicken dish is Chicken curry and Chicken Biryani and Fried Chicken are next preferred.

Table 9: Preferred Consumption style-wise distribution.

Interpretation: Chicken Curry is the most preferred among the all the people from different Occupations also (Table 10).

Table 10: Preferred Consumption style-wise, Occupation-wise favourite chicken dish distribution.

Interpretation: Chicken Curry is the most preferred among the all the people from different Place of living also (Table 11).

Table 11: Place of living-wise consumption distribution.

Interpretation: Chicken Curry is the most preferred among the all the people from different Income Group also (Table 12).

Table 12: Family Income-wise preferred consumption style-wise Favorite Chicken Dish Distribution.

Interpretation: Cook at home is the most preferred among all the Consumption styles and the next is ‘Eat at Restaurant’ (Table 13). Interpretation: All income group people feel that Chicken is the most affordable non-veg food (Table 14).

Table 13: Total number of members in family Vs Consumption style.

Table 14: Family income Vs Affordability Distribution.

Interpretation: Those who eat Chicken ‘3 days per week’, prefer cooking at home as most preferred style. Those who prefer to eat once per week prefer the consumption style as ‘Eat at restaurant’. Those who eat chicken dishes ‘Twice per month’ prefer ordering online (Table 15).

Table 15: Preferred Consumption Style-Wise Chicken Dish Consumption Frequency.

Interpretation: Those who eat Egg dishes ‘3 days per week’ & ‘Once per week’, prefer cooking at home as most preferred style. Those who prefer to eat once per week prefer the consumption style as ‘Eat at restaurant’. Those who eat chicken dishes ‘Twice per month’ prefer ordering online (Table 16).

Table 16: Preferred Consumption Style-Wise Egg Dishes Consumption Frequency.

Interpretation: The above Table 17 proves that, though the respondents feel other non-veg items other than chicken as affordable, their chicken consumption is distributed across all frequency segments.

Table 17: Affordability Vs Chicken Dish Consumption Frequency.

Interpretation: The Table 18 confirms that the primary reason for consuming chicken is ‘Taste’ and the next reason is ‘Family Practice’. About 9% of respondents feel cooking chicken is easier and hence they prefer eating chicken.

Table 18: Consumption reason-wise Preferred Chicken dish.

The majority of 40% consume chicken once a week, along with eggs, and are females in the age group of 15-25 being students located in urban areas. Homemakers consume less than employed. Only 8% of the respondents were vegetarians. The most preferred non-vegetarian food is chicken over eggs and other poultry products. Taste is the preferred attribute for consumers preferring chicken as a food choice. The most preferred chicken food is biryani over barbecue, chicken curry, chicken fry, etc. Despite egg being the cheapest alternative, the chicken was chosen as the best value for money. The most preferred cooking choice is homemade. Further, it was found that among vegetarians, the most preferred food was chicken and not egg as generally presumed.

Consumption patterns were skewed in favor of residents in cities consuming homemade chicken, as against restaurant dining, at least once a week. People living in villages were found to be consuming more frequently at least thrice per week.

Consumption of egg and egg dishes was largely confined to students cooking at home in cities. Home cooking was the preferred style for egg and related dishes. Those employed also preferred egg as a major food consumption item.

Demographic distribution proved that the vast majority of consumers were in the 15-26 age group and consumption tended to drastically reduce for increasing age brackets. When preferred chicken dishes were separately assessed, it was found that the majority ate chicken curry cooked at home as against other chicken dishes like biryani, barbecue, chicken fry, shawarma, etc. again at restaurants; the most preferred choice was also chicken curry than other dishes. Biryani and fried chicken were the second and third choices. Analysis proved that the middle-income group is the largest consumers of chicken dishes followed by high-income and low-income groups. Therefore, low-income groups in villages have the greatest potential to increase poultry products. The ideal family size that consumed poultry products was a husband-wife with a child. Among non-vegetarian foods in order of preference were chicken, fish, mutton, and egg dishes.

World poultry meat consumption is constantly growing. Chicken meat is a source of high-quality protein with a relatively low content of fat. In poultry production, meat and eggs stand out. Functional ingredients are supplemented to chicken feed to improve the nutritional value of chicken meat, thus making chicken meat a foodstuff with added value (enriched or functional product), as it contains ingredients that are beneficial to human health.

Broiler meat in the past had been considered to be a delicacy but as a result of increasing levels of urbanization and higher levels of disposable incomes, poultry meat is increasingly seen as less of a luxury product and more as a daily staple. Further with changing food habits and increasing exposure to global cuisines, the Indian population is increasingly converting to a non-vegetarian diet. Poultry meat is preferred over other meat products as it is considered more hygienic and is available throughout the year across the country at relatively lesser prices than fish/mutton. Further: The annual per capita consumption of broiler meat and eggs remains one of the lowest in the world and is significantly lower than many emerging and developed markets. As a result of the low penetration levels and continuously increasing income levels, however, we expect the per capita consumption of both broiler meat and eggs to increase continuously during the next five years. Again the growth in the food services market such as restaurant and fast food joints are also creating a positive impact on the consumption of broiler meat and eggs. Both broiler meats as well as eggs represent important ingredients in both traditional Indian non-vegetarian recipes as well as fast foods. In addition, eggs represent an important ingredient in bakery foods and thee Indian bakery foods market is currently exhibiting strong growth rates. This is expected to o create a positive impact on the consumption of eggs in India.

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