Journal of Mucosal Immunology Research
Open Access

Brain barriers; mucosal immunology; olfactory epithelium; B cells; adjuvants; respiratory viruses; upper respiratory tract; neurotropic pathogens; humoral immunity

Introduction

pIgR is important for mucosal immunity. Polymeric immunoglobulins (pIgs), for instance, can be bound by pIgR and transported across the mucosal epithelium by endocytosis before being released into the luminal mucus layer to form a protective barrier. The most crucial route for immunoglobulin transmembrane transport is this one. In humans, pIgR may transport both pIgA and M at the same time, however in rats and birds, pIgR only transports dimer IgA (dIgA, the primary kind of pIgA) [3]. Similar to this route, pIgR can deliver pIg-antigen complexes into secretions. Additionally, mucosal immunity benefits from secretory component (SC), a proteolytic fragment of pIgR. As the primary constitutive structure of secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) and M, SC can prevent proteolysis degradation of these secretory immunoglobulins and can neutralize antigens in their free form. Additionally, the intracellular neutralization of dIgA and its antigen is mediated by pIgR, which also serves an immunomodulatory function [4].

The initial line of defense for the lung is provided by pIgR, which is expressed on lung epithelial cells and serves as a link between innate and adaptive immune responses at mucosal surfaces. The lung, a site of gas exchange, is constantly exposed to environmental stimuli. But regrettably, there aren’t many investigations on the pIgR of mammalian respiratory systems, particularly in Bactrian camels. More importantly, although some reports indicate that pIgR can be expressed in the lungs of humans, pigs, rats, mice, and rhesus monkeys, it is still unknown which lung cells do so. Therefore, in this study, immunohistochemical, micro-image analysis, and statistical methods were used to systematically analyses the pIgR expression characteristics in Bactrian camel lungs. The findings of this research should support further investigation into the mucosal immune roles of pIgR in the lower respiratory tract of Bactrian camels.

Description

In this study, we develop a mathematical model that takes into account the known disease characteristics and keeps track of the numerous interventions the Ugandan government has carried out since the first case was reported in March 2020. The impact on the disease burden is then quantified after we assess these measurements to understand levels of responsiveness and adherence to standard operating procedures [5]. The trace-and-isolate protocol, in which some of the latently infected individuals tested positive while in stringent isolation centers, was modeled in this model in a novel way that reduced the infectious period.

Discussion

While advances are being made in the tissue engineering technique employing scaffolds concentrated on poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide), a temperature-responsive polymer. By covalently attaching the polymer to the surface of the culture dishes, temperature-dependent cell desorption and attachment were made possible. Changing the temperature is the only simple way to control the temperatureresponsive culture dish. The surface of the temperature-responsive culture dishes exhibits hydrophobicity at 37 °C, the usual temperature for cell culture, and the cells adhere and multiply at this temperature [6]. The surface of the culture dish becomes hydrophilic when the temperature is reduced below 32 °C, and the cells desorb spontaneously as they hydrate. As a result, adherent cells can be collected as a single cell sheet while retaining cell-to-cell adhesion and the extracellular matrix composed of collagen, fibronectin, laminin, etc. when they are cultured until they become confluent (coated on the surface of the culture dish) and the temperature is lowered to room temperature. positioned at the cell sheet’s base. Cell sheets have the benefit of permitting scaffoldfree transplanting since the extracellular matrix functions as a “glue” to quickly bind cells and tissues to one another. Additionally, cell sheets can be stacked to create dense tissues. Cell sheet tissue engineering is a type of tissue engineering that creates tissues without the use of scaffolds.

In order to create a regenerative medical treatment for esophageal ESD artificial ulcers, we carried out extensive animal studies, created squamous cell sheets from oral mucosal tissue, and demonstrated that cell sheets could be applied to the ulcer surface after esophageal ESD using an endoscope. Additionally, a clinical research known as a First in Human (FIH) study was carried out from January 2008 to March 2011. 10 There is no need for medication like immunosuppressive drugs in this therapy because it uses autologous tissue, and there is also no risk of side effects like infection as with steroid therapy.

Yu et al. divided the five techniques for preventing esophageal stricture after ESD into the following categories. mechanical techniques, tissue engineering techniques, autologous transplantation, and other cutting-edge methods. Systemic administration of steroids and local injection of steroids are the most used methods. The benefits of systemic steroid administration include their effective antiinflammatory and anti-fibrotic properties as well as how convenient they are for the patient to administer. The drawbacks include systemic adverse effects (immunosuppression, osteoporosis, gastrointestinal bleeding, electrolyte imbalance). When there are peripheral mucosal abnormalities, it has little impact [7]. Additionally, the benefits of local steroid injection include strong inflammation suppression and less tissue side effects. Delay in wound healing and local responses is drawbacks (perforation, mediastinal abscess, pleural effusion). Circumferential mucosal deficiencies are not significantly affected. Cell sheet transplantation offers several cell sources and development potential; yet, it is currently in the preclinical stage. It is regarded as having a high cost, a difficult operation, and stringent technical specifications. Recently, it was discovered that the inhibition of inflammatory cytokines by epithelial cell sheets affects the suppression of esophageal stricture. There is currently no perfect preventative therapy for esophageal stricture, thus it’s critical to choose the right option based on the patient’s history [8].

Only a small number of clinically used regenerative medicine treatments have produced durable effects. Rama et al. reported long-term results of 112 patients with corneal injuries treated with autologous limbal stem cells grown on fibrin, the majority of whom had burn-dependent limbal stem cell deficit. Our study demonstrated the safety of the cell sheet treatment with a follow-up of over 10 years and no esophageal restenosis. In case 5, a novel strategy was used after extensive patient consultation: the esophagus was left intact, and the No106 recR lymph node was dissected. Because of this, we were able to dissect an additional No106pre lymph node metastasis, which is rarely often dissected, even with extra surgical resection following ESD. Additionally, there were numerous esophageal carcinomas, but none of them could be treated without chemotherapy and endoscopic surgery [9].

Conclusion

The Ugandan government has undertaken several actions since the first case was reported in March 2020, and we create a mathematical model in this work that accounts for the known disease characteristics. We evaluate these measurements to understand levels of responsiveness and adherence to standard operating procedures before quantifying the impact on the disease burden. In this model, the trace-and-isolate strategy was novelly modelled to shorten the infectious duration. In this strategy, some of the latently infected individuals tested positive while in strict isolation centres. Furthermore, the degree of pIgR expression in ciliated cells was favourably connected with bronchial luminal regions but negatively correlated with how clean the airflow through the bronchial cross-sections, demonstrating that the pIgR expression level in the bronchial epithelium was heterogeneous. Our study paved the way for further investigation into how immunoglobulins (namely SIgA) behave in a controlled manner after being delivered by pIgR through the lung membrane of Bactrian camels.

Acknowledgement

None

Conflict of Interest

None

1. Shi H, Han X, Jiang N, Cao Y, Alwalid O, et al.(2020) Radiological findings from 81 patients with COVID-19 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis 20: 425-34.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

2. Wu JT, Leung K, Leung GM (2020) Nowcasting and forecasting the potential domestic and international spread of the 2019-nCoV outbreak originating in Wuhan, China: a modelling study. The Lancet 395: 689-97.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

3. Dawood MAO (2016) Immune responses and stress resistance in red sea bream,Pagrus major, after oral administration of heat-killedLactobacillus plantarumand vitamin C. Fish Shellfish Immunol 54: 266-275.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

4. Lalwani S, Sahni G, Mewara B, Kumar R (2020) Predicting optimal lockdown period with parametric approach using three-phase maturation SIRD model for COVID-19 pandemic. Chaos, Solitons & Fractals 138: 109939.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

5. Keeling MJ, Rohani P (2008) Modeling Infectious Diseases in Humans and Animals. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press 6: 52-76.

Indexed at, Crossref

6. Mubayi A, Zaleta CK, Martcheva M, Castillo-Chávez C (2010) A cost-based comparison of quarantine strategies for new emerging diseases. Math  Biosci  Eng 7: 687-717.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

7. Bahi (2017) Effects of dietary administration of fenugreek seeds, alone or in combination with probiotics, on growth performance parameters, humoral immune response and gene expression of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurataL.). Fish Shellfish Immunol 60:50-58.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

8. Cerezuela  (2016)  Enrichment of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurataL.) diet with palm fruit extracts and probiotics: effects on skin mucosal immunity. Fish Shellfish Immunol 49: 100-109.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

9. Lazado CC (2014) Mucosal immunity and probiotics in fish. Fish Shellfish Immunol 39: 78-89.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref