Changing the Position of the State in Western Thought

Department of Political Sociology, Islamic Azad University of Shahreza, Iran

*Corresponding Author:

Javad Bahmani
Department of political sociology
Islamic Azad University of Shahreza, Iran
Tel: 989131093121
E-mail: javadbahmanistu@gmail.com

Received Date: September 10, 2016; Accepted Date: November 02, 2016; Published Date: November 09, 2016

Citation: Bahmani J (2016) Changing the Position of the State in Western Thought. J Civil Legal Sci 5:214. doi: 10.4172/2169-0170.1000214

Copyright: © 2016 Bahmani J. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

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Abstract

The concept of state in political science has and old history and at this moment in time passing its evaluation trend in western though toward creating responsible and efficient organization that is responsible for defined duties in the continuous changing. Social justice, protection of citizens liberties, society and are outlines are functions of established institution by people in order to organize the country’s current affairs. Taking look at the path which leads to establishing this institution, shows a turbulent path. Since city –state up to church hegemony and transition to the age of enlightenment in the seventeen and eighteen centuries, the emergence of the great theories such as: “Locke”, “Rousseau”, “Mill” andother great thinkers in this field gives the spirit of ministers thought to the governance structure and has kept this process open and keeps the process ready for steps forward in order to achieve better governance by human. Undoubtedly this fundamental perspective about government ruling views can’t be discussed out of time and place circumstances even conditions of growing thinkers were not without effect for offering their views. But political sociology was so helpful in order to emerge the ideas. Individualistic look, especially after transition from domination of the church which effect these thoughts, caused that now after period of modernity, post-modern views makes great challenges in terms of the causes of human separation and talked about analysis of internals and human’s nontechnological relation in family and psychoanalysts such as: “Lacan” and thinkers like: “Lyotard”,”Indarian”, “Michel Foucaultet” and have developed challenged. And this is a path that will have a tremendous impact on state’s function and status in the near feature.

Keywords

Social justice; Political; Sociology; Government

Introduction

Looking at the role of state as the power receiver element, having a form of political philosophy and not only a political thought begins in Greek at the time of Socrates and accompanied by his views and studying the course of movement and place which was considered at that time for city states has studied briefly in this text. Arriving to the fourth century and after that in Gregorian date new ideas were introduced by looking at the Empire and dissemination of Roman conquest church was corrupted because of gaining power in different fields especially enhancing themselves into approve or rejection of rules from the viewpoint of divine legitimacy. At this time different thoughts started to be introduced and the bases of thoughts in modern Era were founded by “Augustine” at the end of medieval. Thirteen and fourteen centuries AD, there were the highest confliction between supporters of church authority and authority of the government and there was this contest in act and theory.

Important concepts and theories such as: civil government, restrict the power of church, public participation for selecting authority, the legitimacy of “president of believers” instead of pop’s divine authority, popular sovereignty, limited and conditional power of the rulers and position of council were defined during these debates. Pop and its supporters claim absolute authority (plenitudinem potestatis) of pop which means papal authority in the theocracy and in secular state followers of “Aquinas” thinking were against the church claims and leaning to the secular government. “Allerey Dante” (1265-1321 AD) a great Italian thinker was supporter of secular government. “Jean Dopay” (died 1306 AD) although he was a priest, defended king’s position against the pop claims in his treatise.

In the late middle ages some people like: “Marsileh” an Italian thinker and “William Ockham” an English thinker from Paris University were the pioneers of modern political thoughts.

“Marsileh” by introducing the theory of popular sovereignty and William Ockham by introducing the theory of individual’s irrefutable rights and freedoms presented the most important teachings of the modern political thoughts so that of course was contained the past thoughts, perceptions and institutions. In the next centuries based on Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau and Montesquieu’s theories, the state was divided into: legislative and judicial. Now in the twenty-first century the direction of changes is about authorities of the government as an executive body elected by the people by defining and focusing on principles of democracy, freedom and justice. This big question that after over two thousand and six hundred years has reached to this stage, using a power by a chosen institute called: state which has country’s implementation power in contrast to the civil society which consists of parties, free press and has an important challenge that will step to the more developmental stages in the field of political science. How extent is fore front of civil society in order to legislative laws or opposition to them [1]. If the civil society finds that its representatives in parliament or government are contrary with their promises or interests of society how far it can prevent from implementing approved politics and laws. Dynamic of civil society will be the only option for this problem or selected bodies such as parliament and government should be changed because of civil society’s demands?

Pre-Modern State

In the eleventh an ninth centuries BC which called: Homeric epoch which its political structure was based on clan system and normal economy. Seventh and eight centuries B.C, Era of Hesoid development of slavery system and analyzing the patriarchy society, city–state consists of urban as a main core and serious of villages around it. Up to the end of four century B.C which Macedonian army triumph Athena and Macedonian Empires was founded, city–state was the indicator of political and social life in Greek.

Sparta and Athens were the biggest Greek’s city–state with two different governmental systems and somewhat two different social systems. Sparta an agricultural society and oligarchic conservative government (rule of limited groups) and aristocratic ruling class or Spartans had military life and Aylvots were senior farmers. Perrics which were relatively independent, they were tribute and didn’t have their own lands.

Athens main job was more navigation and artisans. In Sparta council of elders composed of thirty aristocratic families and the people’s assembly was composed of all Asparties who had reached the age of 30.

Athens experienced kinds of aristocracy, oligarchy, democracy and powerful. Athens was included main categories, Apartite of nobility, “Geomor” small farmers, “Demyork” artisans and eventually slaves. “Demiyork” and “Marchants” forms demos (people). Athenian democracy at the time of “Prikles” was the most completed of its kind at that time (fifth century B.C). Supreme power was in the hands of people assembly or “Alegzia” includes all of freemen who were the members of assembly since they were 20. Executive functions used to be done by a council which is “Bola” and was included 500 members [2]. Members are selected among different tribes, each tribe 50 people based on people’s will to regulate the life affairs in this approach was completely new. Before that in Greek like Eastern ancient cultures and civilizations the source of law was used to known super natural. Organizing of government based on law which is validated by people was considered actually as a revolution in social and intellectual life. A new man emerged from this revolution which was appeared as a citizen. Crossing the myth in Egypt kind was considered as a God in Mesopotamia as a God’s representative, in Iran and in China as the sun of sky. These civilizations were called: theotractic civilizations which politics was a part of religion. In Greek mythology origin of existence was searched in the face of Gods like: Uranus, Gaya and Eros. A group of philosophers who were called: “natural philosophers” in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C noticed to the nature in order to explain the universe instead of God’s will which are expressed in Humer. They placed an internal order for nature. The importance of this view in political thoughts are:

1. Trusting to internal and natural law and order.

2. Using the logical reasoning methods based on concepts and logical reasons.

Heraclitus tried to explain the “logos” expressions means the laws governing the universe .In his view, the general rule is that the world is unique which also is called: unit. “Logos” as the general role of existence which human low is the light of that and wisdom is able to receive it.

Sufists: Group of teachers in the fifth century who had an important role in passaging from mythical thoughts to rational thoughts and aristocratic values to democratic values. Old aristocratic thought manners and moral are results of inheritance not training. They stated that the law in human society is relative. By announcing that governmental law and order are contract matter, put the human law or “nomus” against divine fate natural necessity. Socrates was generally known in a fight with sofists. Socrates considered the political virtue as a field of science and believed that expertise should be taken into account as the source of society’s political management. He considered the virtue as the base of philosophy and made it separate from the origin. City–state and also Plato (347-426 B.C) and Aristotle’s views (322-348 B.C) are the most famous presented views by paying attention to the current studies on these theories, About democracy and citizenship, the philosopher king and polis presented caused that now can be the source of many discussions in the field of political thoughts and political philosophy on the origin and development of the state, authorities, citizens and government authority and the scope of its performance. Plato sought to link the insight (knowledge) and power. He wrote the book of: “president” and the book of: “law” that separate immature and mature state. In Plato’s republic, education recognize as the state’s exalted nature, the role of government is educating the soal. In law incomplete states are introduced based on the distance from the complete state. He considered the state responsible for material and spiritual prosperity. His opinion about reaching the people to the truth and by the help of philosophy which found the origin of philosophers king idea. This isn’t response of majority of the people. Justice in his view is making a balance among characteristics or states of sprit which are included wisdom, will and desire and starts its investigation from the government. State and society which are obvious and its easier to investigate. Family, village, city–state and classes which called: primary state, forms his attitude to establish the government. His divisions are based on leaders, guards, manufacturers, gold natures, silver natures and iron natures and slaves weren’t known as citizens. The ideal state is manifestation of absolute justice and justice means good coordination among components of the soal (intellect, anger, lust). His suitable structure is timucracy (self-glorification of Spart model) that they will be overthrown by greed, oligarchy or government of limited group of riches which if they don’t overthrown by greed, they achieve democracy and next structure which is the worst type of power structure in his view, is “Tyrant” (fraud) or oppressor which is the government of a dictator. Aristotle has the book of politics and Nicomachean Ethics which introduce the theory of substance and four causes (final cause, subjective cause and material cause) instead of controversy hesitation do the experimental study and instead of searching for the ideal state, study the best practical states annexed situations (task-oriented citizens) and reach to the polity system (intermediate between democracy and oligarchy). In his view and Plato, government is a natural affair.

Organic viewpoint (organic) consider the polity system as the best system with regard to the conditions (republic) (although a virtuous and deserving king is better). In organic viewpoint different parts of the society such as the different body organs work together in a proper performance. In polity system middle –class citizens presents more. Citizen’s economy is also important in this viewpoint that Plato reject the economical viewpoint. He (Plato) agreed to the expropriation of wealth and trying to gain wealth is not true in his viewpoint but Aristotle has the different viewpoint [3].

This period ends with the title of ancient Greek or classical period and then enter to the Hellenistic Era. By falling the city–state from the fourth century B.C up to the three decades before the birth of Christ and from the death of Alexander up to annexation of Egypt to the Roman Empire. Combination of western culture and the elements of eastern culture caused rise and glory and fall of the Roman Empire. During the Hellenistic, Epicurus school was introduced. Epicur (270-341 B.C) established schools that trained women in it. Their goal was peace of mind and enjoy was considered as the first good that was also called: school of hedonism genuine. Justice is considered pleasured because of the contract and expect and totally they concerned with political affairs less. It was founded by “Rennault stoic” school in Athena. It became more inclusive than Epicurus and link that era to Christianity era. In this Logos viewpoint material sprit was considered Universally. The great though of universal brotherhood are important teaching of stoic philosophy.

Hellenistic era that began with rational thoughts finally led to religious thoughts and even mystical thoughts. From polytheism to divine and regarding the natural laws as a reflection of natural process in harmony with human reason and considered the human interface. Law system in Roman showed that basically the idea of legislative laws forms when the politics is separate from ethics and government considers as an institution separate from society as an abstract concept and law system is maybe the greatest achievement of this period. Cicero (43 -106 BC): was defenders of republic during the period of transition from republic to empire and “republic” and “laws” are written by him. In this viewpoint the origin of government, nature of government and people’s rights, joy natural law concept, all human have intellect. He considered the state as a rational institution which is reflect of natural law.

St. Augustine: in 345 AD, when the Roman Empire was in decline wrote “confessions” and “God’s city” books. The core of St. Augustine theory was separating the two terrestrial and numinous societies. Fall of Roman Empire, establishment of numerous monarchies and a vast network of churches and “Constantin” Christianity in 313 A.D caused increasing power of church. By separating western and eastern Roman, Pop was the highest church authority and its power was so extended that called: “king of Pop”. In medieval economical–social system was based on: feudal, bishops who were directly appointed by Pop where big landowners themselves. And intensive conflicts were began practically and theoretically among the governance of the church and Pop, bishops and king powers.

Aquinas (1274): was a great Christian scholar, totality of theology was his work and classical Greek philosophy, Christian religious educations and finally Roman law were his sources (especially Aristotle’s ideas) and he made it possible to gather reason and religion.

In his view, human’s reason is his or her conductor even after his descent.

He was known the government very natural and sovereign’s authority depended on the public’s will. Thirteen and fourteen centuries were the pick of confliction between the supporters of government’s authority and ecclesiastical authority.

Alviri Dante (1265-1321): was one of the most defenders of the secular government. “Jean Dimer” was a moderate critics of Pop in the fourteen century. “Marsileh Padovani (1280-1342)” the author of defending peace book considered the government out of church control who was taken refuge to the Ludwig German empire because of expressing his ideas. He believed that the government should be relied on the authority of citizen’s public.

Transition to Enlightenment Era

Modern state is an apparahes of power which is distinct from those who exert it in a certain level. Governmental officials are separate from civil society but in Marsileh Padovani’s republic theory this fractionation hasn’t applied. Marsileh Padovani doesn’t care about the form of government but the conditions of the people’s republic, social legislations and public’s satisfactions about regulations and government officials have been considered.

William Ockham (1280-1349 AD): He also took refuge in Ludwig court because in controversy between Pop and king, he was in king’s side. “new jobs in day”, ”debate” and “seven questions about Pop’s authority” are his works. And his departure from the law is natural. He achieves to individual’s genuine, individual rights and freedoms and government’s legitimacy and constraints by the help of theoretical and philosophical bases. In his view, when the people are function by the governance should be selected by themselves. In modern vision, people are paid attention and in pre –modern period society is paid attention. In this view, people are considered as someone who has certain powers in order to take advantage of the world to survive, these powers could be spoken as right. People’s satisfaction and consent are considered as the source of public authority (state). No ruler has absolute power even on behalf of people because this word is a fake (in fact there is only one) and the person has no absolute power to hand out to the ruler. He believes that the government as a divine deposit who has given on behalf of people. In this period transition the view of individualism to the society in considering the individual rights, political philosophy and political thoughts started to improve. Next scholars were formed with a focus on state’s main origin based on individual origin and selecting the people from classic Greek to Hellenistic and granted the authority of church now inter to human world and establishing the power’s structural frameworks based on determined roles and dependent on individual rights.

Enlightenment Era and Modernity

In the study of Machiavelli’s ideas, his mind demand about the republican can be observed in books of: “sovereigns” or “talks”. Although in the period of transition individuals and scholar’s type of view and article is multi-layer that the time, place and personality of the writer should be evaluated in this article so that this word is completely tangible and understandable at this stage of our time. In every work of art writing of different layers should be considered definitively. Because undoubtedly the author of processor will have great clamities of should take refuge in the court of Germany Empire and wrote Rando’s word. This Mersi’s less word in this respect that endorse substantial principle that theorist’s time, place and responsibility are so important [4].

Leviathan Hobbes (1588-1679 AD) wrote it and also this book of citizen replace this view that natural right is above the natural law and investigate the substitution of this approach and explain the priority of right to duty. The new democracy theory in enlightenment Era was founded based on these two challenges called: “Hobbs” and “Yalak” and whether the sequence of Ockham and other’s thoughts are visible in Hobbes and Lock face?

John Locke (1632-1704) in his papers especially speech in human understanding substitute the bases of Omanist thoughts and individualism based on human fundamental rights. After him Motesquieu (1685-1755) in the book of: “sprit of law” emphasis on independence of various capacities in the power structure. Although in separation judiciary power isn’t necessary emphasis.

David Hume (1711-1776) in his book of: “speech about human’s understanding although he is mostly in place of philosophers’ so he founded the view of utilitarianism and after that this approach were extended by Jeremy Benham benefit based on qualitative of other power rights, the government consider the public utility and he believes in the system of representative democracy following that, John Stuart Mill (1806-1876) entered the moral view into the benefit and don’t make any benefit. He also emphasis on the system of representative democracy and minimum freedom, security and individual rights are discussed.

Rousseau’s social contract emphasis on individual rights and consider it as a result of everyone’s rights based on a social contract. Ideas of Hegel and then Marx’s especial understandings as he writes in the book of: “capital”, state’s existing structure will be questioned after falling of capitalism and communism ruling and its existing necessity will be violated because foundation of Marx’s view based on economy and theoretical framework is placed on the same basis and in case of solving economical problems in society, the state doesn’t benefit. Although the other views and schools questioned state’s existing structure on the bases of his reasoning its existing is assumed unnecessary. However the theory of minority state is expanding by developers of democracy, liberal democracy and modernity. Although Fokoyama considers liberal democracy and its minimum state as the end of history or Habermas who calls himself the guardian of modernity and the other scientists and thinkers in twenty century who makes theories about developing the people status and reducing the power of state structure.

The Role of Civil Society and State

After developing modernity thoughts and democracy seeking theories about the status of civil society was also discussed in this subject as main reasons of strengthening democracy. Free flowing of information, freedom of expression, freedom of founding trade centers, civil organizations and political parties provide a platform in new ideas for growing the society and control the power structure.

State, has a broader sense than government and governing because is always trying to control and limit the society’s political procedures by drawing the political boundaries. In other words, the state is trying to make a political discourse. By considering the drown boundaries and changing and reconstructing the political area, civil society can be called a place where conflicts happens and where society communicate with state. The values of civil society are included: political participation, state accountability and publicity the policy in concepts of: civil society and general fields which are used synonymously with the view of Montescu, Dotokovil and Habermas’s tradition of thought. According to this especial discourse, democracy depends on politicizing the groups outside the state not the state itself. This discourse causes increasing the collective actions, self- organization and respect for the other members of civil society as much as their interests and understandings are different to each other.

Civil society will be corrupted without supporting the recognized and enforceable rights, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly, freedom of opinion and freedom of creating and promoting the public opinion. “Maxist” theory did two things: on one hand rose to conflict with liberal theory and on the other hands, made an intense discussing about state in Marxist circles. State regarded as an independent power structure, a political power structure which had profound influence on all classes of society. State-centered theory hadn’t paid much attention to the issues related to the political struggle. Proponents of this theory had neglected recognizing different ways which people struggle with the state and even prevent it from using force. The reason was that, the state was separated from the confliction zone –means civil society- by state-centered political theories.

Gramsci in his works mention that: state is political structure of civil society and “Foucault” says that, power is not something to be imposed from top to down but spread in the society. Foucault argues that power is not absolute at all and people acts in their daily life according to the local power structures and little social principles or codes, cods which in most of cases challenge the ruling codes and limit them. This approach had became popular in political studies and takes us to the civil society but the question is: how far is the civil society allowed to use force in implementing the state policies when social power was manifested in civil society by the whole community and was emerged as a political power it won’t be an obstacle for the state’s driving polices? Based on rational distribution of power, as the civil society is composed of citizens, in case of replacement the culture of intellectual pluralism and accepting the votes and improving the social culture politically and economically growth and expanding the middle class of society it can be hoped to make a balance in this field.

Results

Process of theorizing evolution in political philosophy and political thought in the way of human evaluation, the position of state was changed from custodian material and spiritual affairs to a stage which moves as an elected institution by the people and under supervision of civil society. Public source based on maintaining the security, legal freedoms, national interests and whatever civil society forms in collective intelligence framework in charter of national as constitution. The path of human intellectual evaluation during the past dozens of centuries reach to the current stage and the route is still open and human are able to design, theorizing and applying the new policies in order to achieve happiness in all areas. Minimum and pragmatic governments which are responsible for broaden supervision areas are now executives to meet the civil society’s demands and civil society determine the growing trend of implemented polices by the government in countries which are based on civil society.

References

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3. Nira C (1999) Civil society and state, investigations about political theories.
4. Saeid M (2008) History of political ideas, From Plato to Hubermas.