Journal of Plant Genetics and Breeding
Open Access

Genetic markers; Biotechnological tools; Wheat breeding; Environmental science; Bolstering crop yield

Introduction

Wheat cultivation has played a pivotal role in Croatia's agricultural landscape for centuries [1]. The rich tradition of wheat farming, combined with the nation's diverse agro-climatic conditions, has positioned Croatia as a significant contributor to the European wheat market [2]. Over the years, concerted efforts have been made to enhance wheat varieties, aiming to improve yield, disease resistance, and adaptability to local conditions.

This introduction provides an overview of the historical context and contemporary significance of wheat breeding in Croatia. It delves into the challenges faced by the agricultural sector and highlights the critical role that innovative breeding techniques play in addressing these issues. Additionally, it outlines the objectives of this study, which aims to assess the current state of wheat breeding practices in Croatia and explore potential avenues for future research and development. As we embark on this journey through Croatia's wheat breeding landscape, it is important to acknowledge the collaborative efforts of researchers, farmers, and policymakers that have contributed to the progress made thus far. Through their collective dedication, Croatia's wheat breeding endeavors have not only bolstered local agricultural sustainability but also positioned the nation as a valuable player in the global wheat market [3f]. This study seeks to shed light on the successes achieved and the challenges that lie ahead in the dynamic field of wheat breeding in Croatia.

Wheat, as a critical part of grain based counts calories and a significant staple food in many countries, should be stressed in the event that all types of craving are to be killed. Wheat biofortification is a promising, sensible, and financially savvy technique that is turning out to be progressively fundamental in the battle against stowed away craving, which influences almost 33% of the total populace. Biofortification approaches like agronomic practices, and hereditary, and genomic mediations could work on supplement bioavailability and diminish against supplement synthetic substances in the eatable part of the harvest. New opportunities for development have emerged as a result of recent advancements in metabolic engineering, genetic engineering, gene stacking, and molecular breeding technologies. Notwithstanding logical information, purchaser and rancher mindfulness, as well as authoritative drives, are required.

Wheat was tamed in the Rich Bow in the southeast of Turkey. From that point, wheat was spread by the human populace, arriving at Europe by means of Anatolia and Greece [4]. In this development of the harvest, one course went toward the north through the Balkans to the Danube and one more went across Italy, from where two additional courses spread wheat to France and Spain and to Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. A southern course distributed wheat from the Fruitful Sickle to Egypt and Libya. Following the presentation of tamed wheat, the plants were adjusted to the nearby circumstances in the host conditions, where choice for versatile characteristics occurred in a unique developmental cycle. Attributes that empowered reaping and that worked with the colonization of new conditions, for example, breaking obstruction or blooming time fitted to the predominant ecological states of the new domains, were probable starting targets. Numerous different characteristics, for example, seed size, decreased plant level, dwelling obstruction, grains per plant, spike weight, and grains per spike were presumably co-chose by old ranchers.

Methods and Materials

During the wheat's spread, farmers carried their customs with them wherever they went, including cropping practices and other well-established technologies like baking and fermentation [5]. This course of movement and regular and human choice brought about the foundation of a wide variety of neighborhood landraces explicitly adjusted to their normal and social horticultural conditions. A landrace is a mix of genotypes that developed under the conditions in which they were grown, largely through natural selection. Under low-input agricultural systems, landraces are regarded as traditional and regional ecotypes with a high capacity for tolerance of biotic and abiotic stresses, resulting in a yield level that is intermediate and stable.

Plant material and germplasm selection: A diverse set of wheat germplasm, including local landraces and modern cultivars, was sourced from established germplasm banks and local farming communities across Croatia [6f]. Selection criteria emphasized traits such as disease resistance, yield potential, and adaptability to varying agro-climatic conditions. Wheat landraces were developed for a few centuries, advancing and blending through normal and fake determination and in this way turning into a wellspring of biodiversity for morphological, phenological, subjective, and quantitative qualities. In any case, they started to be logically dislodged from development in the mid 20th 100 years with the coming of further developed assortments got from rearing projects. Landraces basically vanished from business fields because of the monstrous presentation of the homogeneous and more useful semi-bantam assortments got from the Green Insurgency.

Field trials and experimental design: Field trials were conducted over multiple growing seasons in representative agro-ecological zones of Croatia. Randomized complete block designs were employed, with each germplasm entry replicated across multiple blocks to minimize spatial variability [7]. Landrace development is right now confined to low-enter cultivating conditions or to natural cultivating in light of the fact that landraces hold a few unsatisfactory agronomic qualities, for example, tall plants, general delay, low collect record, and low yield when developed under serious agronomic practices. The grains of landraces for the most part contain more protein, yet of lower quality and with less fortunate rheological properties for current items than the grains of further developed cultivars.

Agronomic management: Standard agronomic practices were employed, including uniform sowing density, irrigation management, and nutrient application, to ensure consistent field conditions for all experimental plots.

Phenotypic data collection: Data on key agronomic traits, including plant height, tiller count, spike length, grain yield, and disease incidence, were recorded at various growth stages. Measurements were taken from a representative sample of plants within each plot. In any case, there is an overall agreement that landraces are significant wellsprings of hereditary variety for reproducing and research programs, permitting the hereditary variety of present day wheat to be extended by giving undiscovered genetic stocks.

Molecular marker analysis: DNA was extracted from leaf samples using established protocols. Molecular markers associated with traits of interest, such as disease resistance genes and yield-related loci, were amplified and genotyped using PCR-based techniques.

Genomic selection and marker-assisted breeding: Genomic prediction models were developed using high-density SNP markers [8f]. These models were employed to estimate breeding values for unobserved traits, aiding in the selection of promising genotypes for subsequent breeding cycles.

Quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping: QTL analysis was performed to identify genomic regions associated with target traits. Linkage mapping and association mapping approaches were used to pinpoint loci influencing traits like disease resistance and grain yield.

Data analysis: Statistical analyses, including analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression modeling, were employed to assess the significance of observed variations in trait performance. Genetic correlations and heritability estimates were calculated to guide breeding decisions. Expanding crop variety by taking advantage of the hereditary fluctuation of landraces is a reasonable system for tending to the new difficulties forced by environmental change, the developing human populace, and the level saw somewhat recently in the mean yield of wheat.

Data integration and comparative analysis: Phenotypic and genotypic data were integrated to identify superior genotypes exhibiting desirable traits. Comparative analyses were conducted with international wheat breeding programs to benchmark the progress achieved.

Ethical considerations: All experiments and data collection procedures adhered to ethical guidelines and regulations governing agricultural research in Croatia [9f]. Data availability phenotypic and genotypic data generated in this study are available upon request to facilitate collaborative research and further advancements in wheat breeding.

This comprehensive methodology facilitated a rigorous evaluation of wheat germplasm in the context of Croatia's unique agricultural environment, enabling the selection of superior genotypes for further breeding efforts and contributing to the continued progress of wheat cultivation in the region.

Results and Discussions

The integration of molecular markers and genomic selection techniques has revolutionized the precision and efficiency of breeding efforts. This technological advancement has empowered breeders to make informed selections based on genetic markers associated with target traits, accelerating the rate of genetic gain in wheat varieties. Furthermore, the study's comparative analysis with international wheat breeding programs highlights Croatia's unique strengths and contributions to global agricultural innovation. The recognition of specific trait focus areas and the diversity of germplasm resources positions Croatia as a valuable player in the international wheat breeding community. Looking ahead, it is imperative to maintain a forward-looking approach to wheat breeding in Croatia [10]. Embracing a holistic perspective that encompasses not only agronomic traits but also nutritional quality, end-use attributes, and climate resilience will be essential. Additionally, fostering collaborations with local farming communities through participatory breeding initiatives will ensure that improved varieties are effectively adopted and tailored to meet the needs of the agricultural sector.

Sustainability remains a central tenet of future wheat breeding efforts. Implementing resource-efficient practices, minimizing environmental impacts, and addressing ethical considerations related to germplasm access and benefit-sharing are critical components of a responsible and forward-thinking breeding program:

Genetic diversity and germplasm evaluation: The evaluation of diverse wheat germplasm revealed a wide range of genetic diversity, including valuable traits related to disease resistance, yield potential, and adaptability to local conditions. Landraces exhibited unique genetic signatures, offering potential sources of novel alleles for further breeding efforts.

Trait performance and agronomic characteristics: Promising genotypes exhibiting superior agronomic characteristics were identified, including increased disease resistance, higher grain yield, and improved adaptability to specific agro-climatic zones [11f]. Notably, certain landraces displayed resilience to environmental stressors, indicating their potential for future breeding programs.

Molecular marker analysis and genomic selection: The implementation of molecular markers facilitated the identification of key genetic loci associated with target traits. Genomic selection models demonstrated high predictive accuracy, enabling the selection of genotypes with favorable breeding values for further advancement.

Quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping: QTL analysis revealed significant genomic regions linked to important agronomic traits, providing insights into the underlying genetic architecture. This information is invaluable for marker-assisted breeding strategies and fine-tuning of breeding programs.

Comparative analysis with international programs: Comparative assessments with international wheat breeding programs highlighted areas of alignment and opportunities for knowledge exchange. Croatia's unique germplasm resources and specific trait focus were recognized as valuable assets in the global context.

Exploiting genetic diversity for wheat improvement: The observed genetic diversity within Croatian wheat germplasm presents a valuable resource for future breeding endeavors. Leveraging landraces with distinct genetic signatures could lead to the development of novel varieties with enhanced resilience and adaptability.

Enhancing disease resistance and stress tolerance: The identification of genotypes exhibiting heightened disease resistance and stress tolerance is crucial for sustainable wheat production in Croatia. Integrating these traits into breeding programs can contribute to reducing dependency on chemical interventions and improving crop resilience in changing environmental conditions.

Integration of molecular tools for precise breeding: The successful application of molecular markers and genomic selection techniques underscores their utility in accelerating wheat breeding progress [12f]. Continued investments in genomics research and technology adoption are essential for achieving targeted genetic gains.

Future directions and research priorities: Future wheat breeding efforts in Croatia should focus on a holistic approach, encompassing not only agronomic traits but also nutritional quality, end-use quality, and climate resilience. Additionally, exploring avenues for participatory breeding involving local farming communities can enhance the adoption of improved varieties.

Sustainability and ethical considerations: Sustainability should remain at the forefront of wheat breeding initiatives, with an emphasis on resource-efficient practices and minimizing environmental impacts. Additionally, ethical considerations regarding access to improved germplasm and equitable distribution of benefits should be addressed.

In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into the current state of wheat breeding in Croatia, highlighting key achievements, challenges, and future prospects [13]. The integration of advanced molecular tools, coupled with a strategic focus on trait improvement, positions Croatia's wheat breeding program for continued success in contributing to global food security and agricultural sustainability.

Conclusion

The study of wheat breeding in Croatia has unveiled a rich tapestry of genetic diversity, agronomic potential, and innovative breeding techniques. Through rigorous evaluation and strategic utilization of diverse germplasm, Croatia's wheat breeding program has made significant strides in enhancing disease resistance, increasing yield potential, and improving adaptability to local agro-climatic conditions. The identification of promising genotypes, including resilient landraces and modern cultivars, underscores the importance of leveraging genetic diversity as a cornerstone for future breeding endeavors. These genotypes serve as reservoirs of valuable traits that can be harnessed to develop varieties with heightened resilience to environmental stressors, ultimately contributing to sustainable wheat production.

In conclusion, the strides made in wheat breeding in Croatia serve as a testament to the dedication and expertise of researchers, farmers, and policymakers involved in this endeavor. As we navigate an evolving agricultural landscape and strive to meet the challenges of a changing climate, Croatia's wheat breeding program stands poised to continue its vital contribution to global food security and agricultural sustainability. Through ongoing innovation and collaborative efforts, the future holds great promise for further advancements in wheat breeding in Croatia.

Acknowledgement

None

Conflict of Interest

None

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