Clinical Pharmacology & Biopharmaceutics
Open Access

Pharmacology; Phytochemicals; Flavonoids; Antioxidant activity and medical plants

Introduction

One of the top producers of aromatic and medicinal plant materials worldwide is India. Up to this point, 15 agroclimatic zones in India have been used to purchase almost 20,000 medicinal plants. There are many different plant species, but about 7000–7500 of them are used commercially. Indigenous medical systems with a herbal origin, such as Unani and Ayurveda, have been practiced for ages. Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Homeopathy, Modern, and Folk are the Indian medical systems with the highest percentage of plant use [1]. In India, there are about 25,000 herbal pharmaceutical formulations, especially in the past and folk medicines [2]. These pharmaceuticals are others produced directly from the surface of the plant or other elements of the particular plant such as leaves, roots, stems, bark, flowers, and seeds. Some herbs are made from plant-excretory materials, including resin, latex, and gums. A wide variety of bioactive components can be found in plants’ secondary metabolites, which are organically produced from primary metabolites. Secondary metabolites represent pharmaceuticals and aromatic plants such as flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, phenols, plant steroids, alkaloids, and terpenoids.

The pharmacological characteristics of these secondary metabolites are well known. Because it is not practical to obtain bioactive phytocompounds from all plant kinds, their sources are very limited. Traditional medicine's (Siddha and Ayurveda's) usage of medicinal plants has harmless components that contain physiologically active compounds and contribute to the creation of alternative drugs. In Europe along with other developed nations, the request for herbal extracts and therapeutic herbs is steadily rising. Among the exporters, India is also one of the largest exporters of herbal medicine extracts & herbs with additional value. Various medicinal plants and their extracts are components of herbal medicine, which are complementary forms of medicine. This treatment is the most efficient and secures way to treat patients. Various plant components, including leaves, stembark, roots, barks, flowers, seeds, etc., are used to directly synthesize herbal medications. Herbal preparations were often made using polyhedral formulations in the Ayurvedic system. Additionally, they demonstrated a notable impact against several chronic illnesses.

These natural remedies are Churna, Kwatha, Guggul, Taila, Phanta, etc. are only a few examples. In recent decades, scientific research in the field of pharmacology and plant chemistry has led to the development of the next generation of herbs. A vast variety of phytochemical substances that are made by medicinal plants can be employed to carry out crucial biological processes in both humans and animals. Numerous illnesses have been said to be successfully treated by phytochemical components like polyphenolic chemicals, tannins, and terpenoids. Numerous plant chemicals when taken by humans have long-term benefits and they can be successfully used to cure severe prolonged diseases. One or more phytochemical elements in a single medicinal herb work together to produce a pharmacological effect. Therefore, it is acknowledged that plants are a significant source of phytocompounds with significant biological activity [3].

Diabetic pergularia The Asclepiadaceae family is the home of forsk. It is a wild herb that twines perennially and thrives in India by the sides of roads. As an antihelminthic, antiseptic, an nd antiviral agent, the aerial part of P. daemia is used. The treatment of uterine and menstrual symptoms, as well as gastric ulcers, is also done using it. The leaves of this plant, on the other hand, are also employed as a potent remedy for whooping cough, asthma, bronchitis, amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, infantile diarrhea, leprosy, anemia, hemorrhoids, arthritis, hemorrhoids, amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and amenorrhea. To treat boils and wounds, this plant's latex is employed. The stem, on the other hand, is used to treat pyretic, malaria, and colds. Similar to how it is used as an emetic and an abortifacient, root extract is also used to treat gonorrhea, asthma, and constipation. When combined with ginger or lime, fresh leaf extract demonstrated potent anti-rheumatic swelling effects. Recent findings claim that the pharmacological effect of P. daemia's aerial parts can prevent a variety of illnesses (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Basic skeleton of flavonoids and its subgroups.

Plant description

P.daemia is widespread in tropical zones and subtropical zones, especially in India, and other parts of Southeast Asia. It is frequently observed in India in hedges that have been cut down to a height of about 900 m in Southern India and 1000 m in the Himalayas. P.daemia is a milky sap-producing perennial twining plant. The soft-haired stems can reach a height of 4 meters or more. The thin, heart-shaped, broadly ovate, glabrous, or ciliate-hairy leaves are 5–10 cm long, 3.8–9 cm wide, and have petioles that are 2.0 - 6.3cm long and adolescent. These florets are long peduncled axillary pseudo umbels. Pendulous debuts at night. Corella has long, fringed lobes that are creamy white or greenish in color.

Phytochemicals in P. daemia

The therapeutic and pharmaceutical potential of specific plants lies primarily in the isolation of secondary metabolites from extracts of medicinal and aromatic plants occasionally; people treat various disorders with crude extracts of medicinal herbs. On the other hand, it is critical to separate & recognize the bio-active substances and extracts, purify, and understand the mechanism of action of the purified component. Due to this, researchers are now concentrating on confirming historically claimed therapeutic properties as well as identifying bioactive chemicals from medicinal herbs. For the conformation of bioactive phytochemicals, qualitative and quantitative analysis methods are crucial. Various groups of chemicals, including flavonoids, terpenoids, carbohydrates, tannins, flavonoids, glycosides, steroids, and alkaloids are reported to be present in the qualitative phytonutrient examination of P.daemia extract in (Table 1). The first stage is utilizing phytochemicals in the preparation for the extraction of bioactive components from plant sources. Plant samples that are fresh or dried can be used to extract phytocompounds. The lyophilization procedure frequently retains greater phenolic compounds in plant specimens than dry powdered extraction, Compared to extraction in dry powder [4].

Because of their simplicity, effectiveness, and broad applicability, solvent liquid-liquid extractions are the continuous method most frequently employed to prepare extracts from plant materials. Recent years have seen the development of a wide range of techniques, including supercritical microwave extraction, among others, reliableliquid extraction, hypercritical extraction, standard extraction, microwave extraction, and extraction using ultrasound. The identification of bioactive chemicals in plant extracts is frequently done using chromatographic methods. High-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC), gas chromatography (GC), and highperformance liquid chromatography are the most widely used analytical methods for the separation of polyphenolic substances (HPLC), Combining detection by DAD detector and mass spectrometry. Right now, this is one of the popular and, widely applied sets of procedures for separating, identifying, and quantifying phenolic chemicals. For determining a biomolecule's mass and revealing its structural details, Mass Spectrometry is a familiar and effective method. The main applications of mass spectrometry (MS) are in the quantitative and measurable examination of biological molecules (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Possible anti-inflammatory inhibition mechanism of flavonoids from P. daemia.

This approach is in accordance with gas-phase ions that are divided according to their mass-to-charge ratios (m/z). Mass Spectroscopy is a usual and effective method for determining the mass and illuminating the structure of biological molecules. For the majority of tasks in plant metabolite analysis and drug development, HPLC combined with MS is the analytical method of choice]. Plant extract from the entire plant, including the leaves, stem, and root, contains a variety of chemical elements like sitosterol; calotropin, lupeol, calactin, oleanolic acid, corotoxigenin, daucosterol, sucrose, and its acetate are all present in the P.daemia leaves and root extract. Additionally, phytocompounds like pentacosanoic acid polypeptide, hentriacontane, betaine, and the glucoside of P.daemia were discovered in the whole plant preparation. The phytocompounds identified in P. daemia seed extract include dihydro calotropigenin, corotoxigenin, calactin, protouscharin, calotropigenin, uscharidin, calotropin, and uscharin.

Similar to this, seed extract contained a variety of cardenolides, including uscharidin and calotoxin. They also identified several related substances in the stem extract, including coroglaucigenin, corotoxigenin, uscharidin, and uzarigenin. During a qualitative study, it was discovered that flavonoids were the most significant phytochemicals extracted from P.daemia aerial parts.

The dried stem of P.daemia’s vegetative parts was found to contain hyperoside as well as saponins and flavonoids in the fresh flowers and shoots. Numerous studies have demonstrated the potential pharmacological effects of phenolic substances such as bioflavonoids and phenolic acids. The presence of bioflavonoids such anthocyanin, natural compounds coumarin lignans, isoflavones, catechins, flavonoids, and is catechins is primarily responsible for plants' antioxidant action. Green leafy plants, natural fruit juices, and phenolic compounds like flavonoids and phenolic acids are all quite plentiful. With the use of these anti-inflammatory substances or herbal remedies, artery hardening, clogged arteries, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, malignant tumours, and other inflammatory disorders can all be prevented. It's significant to note that phytocompounds have antiinflammatory properties, and several of them are currently undergoing preclinical testing [5].

These days, a lot of people also prefer these natural remedies because of how affordable and secure they are. The primary phytocompound in the P. daemia preparations is flavonoids, with concentrations ranging from 72.549 0.449 to 400.196 0.339 mg/ml. Leaves and stem extracts showed a high amount of flavonoids when compared to other plant components. At a concentration of 10 mg/ml, the equivalent amounts of quercetin in n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and water are 338.725 milligram/ gram, 388.627 milligram/gram, and 400.196 milligram/gram, correspondingly. The category of plant phenolics known as flavonoids is the most well-known and widely distributed. It contains flavones, monomeric flavanols, anthocyanidins, flavanones, and flavonols. These flavonoids could hold back the pro-inflammatory negotiators and further inflammatory agents. Five flavonoids that have anti-arthritic action against a rat model created by the complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) have been identified and documented in P. daemia extracts like chrysoeriol, formononetin, taxifolin, quercetin, and naringenin.

The anti-oxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activity of flavonoids is just a small sample of the health-promoting qualities they possess. There are a number of important subcategories of flavonoids, such as flavanols, anthocyanidins, flavanones, isoflavones, and flavones. Contrarily, numerous therapeutic plants with significant active ingredients still remain undiscovered. Among them, P. daemia was identified as a trustworthy source of flavonoids and other bioactive substances. People's trust in newly developed natural medicines has made certain therapeutics like kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin, and morin popular [6-10].

Pharmacology studies

Antioxidant activity

According to the latest studies, free radicle damage and its side effects severely harm people's health. The stress state results in the overexpression of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species. These reactors promote the development of degenerative diseases. In normal cell metabolism and electron transport systems, ROS, such as superoxidation anion, nitrogen oxide, hydrogen peroxide, peroxide, and reactive hydrogen is constantly produced. When ROS/RNS is overproduced, the defense system fails and oxidants are released. Antioxidants are substances that hold back the oxidation process, chelate catalytic metals, and neutralize free radicals by oxygen scavengers. According to some studies, these substances can prevent oxidation damage caused by free radicals, reducing the risk of some diseases and degenerative diseases. Our blood plasma naturally contains antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), albumin, transferrin, and ceruloplasmin, as well as lipids and water-soluble antioxidants such as tetrachlorophenol, quinine, vitamin C, uric acid, and vitamin E. Antioxidants protect biological systems from being harmed by converting ROS and RNS into stable molecules.

Synthetic antioxidants are now extensively used in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Examples include butyl hydroxyanisole (BHA), butyl hydroxytoluene (BHT), propyl gallate (PG), and test-butyl hydroxyquinone (TBHQ). These substances have very harmful toxic impacts on the victims [11-13]. However, a number of medicinal plant components that have been purified showed strong antioxidant action with the least amount of oxidative damage. By inhibiting two different synthetic free radicals, namely 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline- 6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, the in vitro antioxidant capacity of P. daemia preparations was determined (DPPH).

The methanolic preparation of Pergularia daemia particular portion had been immensely efficient in nitric oxide free radicals, similar to gallic acid. P.daemia extract's ABTS IC50 concentration was 19.72 milligram/milliliter, which was beyond the concentration of gallic acid. Similar to this, the IC50 value for gallic acid and extract for DPPH scavenging activity was 33.36 and 34.12 mg/ml, respectively. In comparison to the gallic acid standard, the Pergularia daemia extract displayed outstanding nitric oxide scavenging activity. On the other hand, a Pergularia daemia leaf extract made with ethanol at 70% showed considerable DPPH free radical scavenging action comparable to industry standards like ascorbic acid. Leaves evaporation exhibited a lesser degree of scavenging effect, and their respective EC50 values were 0.149, 0.699, and 2.608 milligram/milliliter. Additionally, these smaller EC50 values displayed higher antioxidant activity. Additionally, the generation of peroxides and hydrogen peroxides was well suppressed by the ethanolic extract. Ascorbic acid, BHT, and extract all had EC50 values of 17.78, 0.5239, and 0.2065 mg/ml, respectively. Iron levels in P. daemia extract may drop from ferric (Fe3+) to ferrous (Fe2+). Ethyl acetate stem extract had IC50 values of 10.19 and 26.99 g/ml for P.daemia stem extract, respectively. N-Hexane Extract, 58.20 g/ml, is the next component. The presence of phytosterols, phenols, saponins, alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, and triterpenes in the leaf extract may be the reason for the antioxidant activity that has been noted [14-17].

Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity

An ordinary biological process known as inflammation defends the tissue from harm by attacking invading agents such as bacteria. Inflammation is typically a quick and self-limiting process, but when there is an aberrant pathological situation, it produces excessive ROS/ RNS, which causes persistent inflammation. There is a relationship between this chronic inflammation and major inflammatory disorders such as arthritis, cancer, and neurological, metabolic, and cardiovascular conditions. To control this chronic inflammatory condition, researchers have previously created steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications. These medications successfully lessen the intensity of the illness, but they also have a number of negative effects. P. daemia, a medicinal herb, has therapeutic properties with the fewest adverse effects. Rats' paw edema is significantly reduced (p 0.001) by P.daemia ethanolic extracts when compared to carrageenan- and cotton pelletinduced paw edema.

These extracts, at a dosage of 200 mg/kg, demonstrated a reduction in granuloma development of up to 44.18% and 19.87%, respectively. At the same concentration, other preparations, including n-butanol, benzene, and chloroform, display 16.83%, 13.96%, and 15.08%, respectively comparably, whole plant extracts of chloroform and petroleum ether are used to study carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats. The comparison between the treated chloroform extract and the control showed a highly significant (p 0.01) development. By using a technique for stabilizing the membrane of human red blood cells (HRBCs), from the leaf and root of P.daemia, the invitro antiinflammatory efficacy of ethanolic extracts was determined. Their research also showed that the leaves and root extracts had antiinflammatory activity when the membrane was stabilized.

This method produced the most notable stabilization when compared to the standard medication diclofenac sodium (72.73%) at a concentration of 100 g/ml. Extracts from the P. daemia plant also exhibited potent analgesic properties. These extracts are being utilized in place of painkillers. Using Eddy's hot plate technique, the analgesic potency of Pergularia daemia aqueous and alcoholic root extracts was assessed. At a dosage of 1000 mg/kg, the effects were considerable (p 0.001) [44]. P. daemia petroleum extract and chloroform both had similar analgesic effects at a dose of 100 mg/kg (p 0.01). P.daemia contains a lot of flavonoids and glycosides, which may have a large analgesic and anti-inflammatory effect.

Anti-arthritic activity

In animal models, flavonoids have demonstrated efficacy in treating anti-rheumatic disease. Formononetin, quercetin, chrysoeriol, taxifolin, and naringenin are among the flavonoids found in P.daemia methanolic preparations. Red blood cell (8.38 0.67 million/mm3) and hemoglobin (11.84 0.42 g/dl) levels were dramatically raised in the methanolic extract-treated rat groups, which also successfully reduced paw inflammation. While rheumatoid factor (RF), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), white blood cells count (8.91 0.38thousands/ mm3), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (7.91 0.12 mm/h), and C-reactive protein (22.56 0.26 mg/l) levels were considerably lower compared to the group of rats that had arthritis. According to the study results, alcoholic solution t of P. daemia leaf and root (300 g/ml) could have a strong anti-arthritic effect. They verified using a membrane stabilization assay, and they found that leaf activity was higher (54.55%) than root activity (45.55%). Similar to this, P. daemia root extracts show 58.89% greater suppression than leaf extracts, which demonstrated 53.33%. In all instances, 100 g/ml of the reference medication diclofenac sodium was used to compare the results of the assays. Extracts of the Pergularia daemia leaf in the form of petroleum ether at 300 mg/kg lowered swelling and inflammation in the hind paws, which improved the arthritis state in arthritic rats. Further, it has been suggested that P.daemia's anti-rheumatic effects may be attributed to phytocompounds like flavonoids and sterols.

Anti-cancer activity

The second-most common and dangerous cause of death around the globe is cancer. Secondary metabolites from plant extracts used in herbal treatments lessen the disease's severity while avoiding adverse effects for the treatment of cancer. A whole plant extract of methanol dichloromethane (1:1 v/v) was discovered to inhibit the development of cancerous cells. The molecule alpha-amyrin is in charge of preventing the growth of cancerous cells, however, its effectiveness in preventing this growth was only between 15 and 50 ng/ml. According to a different study, Pergularia daemia extract is a significant source for treating oral cancer. Comparing the ethyl acetate extract to the methanolic extract, the ethyl acetate extract (300 mg/kg b.w.) showed superior in live antioxidant research. The effectiveness was assessed in contrast to a DMBA-induced hamster buccal pouch (7, 12-dimethylbenz[a] anthracene). The leaf extract effectively destroyed ovarian cancer cell lines PA-1 and OAW-42, whose respective IC50 values were 30 and 120 mg/ml, respectively. According to scientists, polyphenolic compounds, especially triterpenoids, greatly suppress the growth of cancer cells. The capacity to develop an oval medicine against cancer was also mentioned, along with a slight structural change of triterpenoids [18].

Anti-proliferative activity

The oral keratin-forming tumor cell line HeLa (KB) cells were resistant to the proliferative effects of P.daemia methanolic extract, by using a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide test, the activity was measured (MTT). Measurements of ROS production, membrane potential, antioxidant status, and cell cycle arrest were made to corroborate the antiproliferative effect. They demonstrated the strongest cytotoxic activity against oral KB cells at the maximum dose (160 g/ml) of P.daemia methanolic extract. The MTT assay was used to calculate the IC50 value of methanolic extract against cancer cell lines, which was 90%. The apoptotic morphology of KB cells pre-treated with P.daemia extract was dramatically altered, and this apoptotic morphological change was caused by elevated ROS levels and a decrease in matrix metallopeptidases (MMPs). The apoptosis that occurs in KB cells as a result of the demise of the cancer cell causes DNA damage and the formation of ROS and lipid peroxidation (LPO) in the intracellular region. By encouraging apoptosis and stopping proliferation in malignant cells, P. daemia's polyphenolics (phenolic acid and flavonoids) may be a key factor in reversing this process.

Next to cancer and cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus is emerging as the third "killer" disease in human history. It is a chronic metabolic condition that has an impact on both our body's physical and psychological processes. The potential for anti-hyperglycemic activity was discovered in the first study on Pergularia daemia extract at a concentration of 300 mg/kg effectively reduced blood glucose levels in diabetic rats after streptozotocin (STZ) induction. The diabetic mice were treated for 21 days with chloroform leaf extract, which resulted in blood glucose levels of 160.68 mg/dl, 132.61 ml/dl in ethanol, 152.80 mg/dl in aqueous extract, 123.26 mg/dl in ethanol extract of callus, and 194.6 mg/dl in glibenclamide (600 g/kg).

When alloxan was utilised as the test medication, the administration of alcoholic and aqueous extracts from the whole plant of D. extensa led to a loss in vitality. The blood glucose level (BGL) was significantly (P 0.01) decreased by alcohol extract in a single dose after 1 hour. The anti-diabetic activity was comparable to that of chlorpropamide, a common medication. P. daemia extract has recently been shown to have anti-hyperglycemic efficacy against STZ-induced rat models. On a dose-dependent basis, the blood glucose level considerably dropped. Flavonoids and their phenols, glycosides, triterpenes, saponins, phytosterols tannins, alkaloids, and alkaloids are among the bioactive substances in plants that have hypoglycemic effects.

Hepatoprotective activity

The liver is a remarkable organ that serves as the body's primary chemical laboratory. It is essential to the body's metabolism and detoxification of the many toxins and chemicals that enter it. The biochemical control of biomolecules like lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, and proteins is greatly influenced by the elimination of exogenous poisons and medications. ROS are crucial in liver injury. A common ailment known as liver damage or injury can be brought on by an excessive amount of ROS being produced, which damages the hepatic cells and surrounding tissue. The liver-damaging compounds are produced by a variety of substances, including the toxin itself, carbon tetrachloride, acetaminophen, amanitin, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, ethanol, bromobenzene, and polycyclic aromatics. Because antioxidants are so powerful at scavenging free radicals, they can protect liver cells from CCl4-induced damage. Recent studies suggested that natural antioxidants can guard against liver issues brought on by oxidative stress.

The CCl4-induced hepatic rat model is significantly (P 0.05) protected against the ethanolic and aqueous preparation of P. daemia. Additionally, they found that rats givenethanolic extracts at a dose of 200 mg/kg had lower levels of the enzymes total protein (TPTN), total albumin (ALB), total bilirubin, and total cholesterol, and higher levels of the enzymes aspartate aminotransferase, glutamic pyruvic transaminase, and alkaline phosphatase. It targets fatty acids that are polyunsaturated. Because experimental animals' altered liver microsomal membrane hepatotoxicity was discovered. Aqueous and ethanolic extracts of P. daemia roots are also significantly protective against the rat hepatotoxic effects of paracetamol and CCl4. Similar to CCl4, paracetamol also led to an increase in blood liver enzymes like bilirubin and cholesterol.

The biochemical indicators of SGOT and SGPT were significantly inhibited by both aqueous and ethanolic extracts at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg. LPO and malonaldehyde (MDA) levels were lower in treated rats compared to control rats, while serum protein antioxidant enzymes glutathione (GSH) levels were higher. Since these extracts contain bioactive compounds like flavonoids, terpenoids, glycosides, and saponins, they may have a hepatoprotective impact. The flavonoids and triterpenoids found in the ethanolic extract of P.daemia leaf are what are most likely to be responsible for the hepatoprotective effect. Using quercetin-3-glucoside as a reference in HPTLC, the flavonoids from the ethanol extract and ethanol fraction in P. daemia were verified. These findings show that flavonoids have hepatoprotective properties.

Diuretic activity

Rats were used in a dose-dependent study of the diuretic efficacy of P. daemia preparations. Furosemide was utilized as a reference medication in this study along with the Lipschitz test. According to the findings, the diuretic activity of the P. daemia alcoholic extract peaked at 0.93 at a concentration of 400 ml/kg. Except for the petroleum ether, all examined extracts that were tested for urine production produced significant findings (P 0.001) when compared to the control. Importantly, plant extracts also have an impact on electrolyte excretion through the urine. Alcoholic, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol extracts further increased the excretion of sodium and potassium ions (Na+ and K+) in urine. The alcoholic extract had a diuretic activity of 2.04 units, which was almost identical to the normal dose of furosemide (2.19 units). The urinary Na+ and K+ ions level was raised and the urine's pH level was somewhat raised by extracts like alcohol, ethyl acetate, n butanol, and the common medication furosemide. These results overwhelmingly point to the fact that Pergularia daemia extracts have a diuretic effect. Possible candidates for the diuretic effect of P.daemia's secondary metabolites include alkaloids, flavonoids, and steroids [18].

Anti-tuberculosis activity

Plant extracts appear to have potential benefits for treating TB in the Ayurvedic medical system. Recently found that the hydroalcoholic leaf extract of P. daemia had a protective effect against the liver damage caused by anti-tuberculosis medications (ATDs). ATD administration dramatically reduced albumin and glucose levels. Furthermore, elevated amounts of cholesterol, bilirubin, triglycerides, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, and alanine aminotransferase were found. Glutathione reductase, glutathione, peroxidase, catalase, glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and glucose- 6-phosphate dehydrogenase levels decreased and lipid peroxidation levels increased after exposure to ATDs. As a result, compared to the control, P. daemia extracts notably continued these serum biochemical parameters and antioxidant components.

Anti-fertility activity

P. daemia's ethanolic extract and its steroidal fraction demonstrated a possible anti-fertility effect. A significant effect against female mice during the pre-implantation stage was seen with a steroidal fraction of 200 mg/kg. The late-term abortifacient effect of ethanolic extracts, however, was 600 mg/kg. Within 48 hours of medication therapy, the extract exhibited 100% activity with no mortality. These findings suggest that the steroidal and ethanolic extracts of P. daemia may inhibit reproduction in female mice.

Anti-ulcer activity

Dehydration, ethanol's direct imposition of cytotoxic effects during the pathophysiology of ulcer formation, and interference with mucosal cellular membranes all contributed to the progression of the inflammatory response [19]. Leukocytes, which cause inflammatory reactions, oxidative stress, and apoptosis, also indirectly contributed to the harmful effects of alcohol. NF-kappa B (NF-B) is critical in mediating the development of illness conditions during this process. Numerous studies have documented the anti-ulcerogenic properties of secondary metabolites like flavonoids, tannins, and triterpenes. These phytochemicals are present in P. daemia and may be the cause of the anti-ulcer action. P. daemia showed a healing effect on the ethanolinduced ulcer in rats. The inhibition percentage for the group treated with the standard treatment was 78.73%, whereas the percentage for the extracts (400 mg/kg) was 63.01. Excellent anti-ulcer action is provided by ethanolic extracts of P. daemia leaf in a dose-dependent way [20].

Conclusion

One of the less investigated and reported medicinal plants are P. daemia. We contend that P.daemia had excellent pharmacological action based on historical accounts and literature surveys. Qualitative analyses of compounds from various P. daemia parts, including flavonoids, terpenoids, proteins, amino acids, and saponins. Phytochemicals and bioactive substances can be found naturally in medicinal plants. The key bioactive substances found in P. daemia preparations are claimed to be natural flavonoids and cardenolides. Due to their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and other pharmacologically useful properties in humans, bioactive substances like P. daemia solvent extracts are administered to prevent cancer, arthritis, and other disorders like inflammation. In general, it should be understood that P. daemia's phytochemistry and pharmacological state do not offer sufficient resources for herbal compositions. However, the clinical studies' mechanisms of action are unknown. Additional research is needed to determine the other beneficial chemicals in P. daemia as well as their precise mechanisms of action in treating the disease. These investigations will aid in popularising herbal compositions based on P. daemia.

1. Baveja SK, Rangarao KV, Arora J (1998) “Introduction of natural gums and mucilage as sustaining materials in tablet dosage forms”. Indian J Pharm Sci 50: 89-92.

Google Scholar

2. Dharmendra S, Surendra JK (2012) Natural excipient - a review. IJPBA 3: 1028- 1034.

Google Scholar

3. Pandey R, Khuller GK (2004) Polymer based drug delivery systems for mycobacterial infections. Curr drug deliv 1: 195-201.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

4. Chamarthy SP, Pinal R (2008) Plasticizer concentration and the performance of a diffusion-controlled polymeric drug delivery system. Elsevier 331: 25-30.

Google Scholar

5. Alonso-Sande M, Teijeiro-OsorioD, Remunan-Lopez C, Alonso M (2009)Glucomannan, a promising polysaccharide for biopharmaceutical purposes. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 72: 453-462.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

6. Shrinivas K, Prakesh K, Kiran HR, Prasad PM (2003) Study of Ocimumbasilicum and Plantago ovate as disintegrants in the formulation of dispersible tablets. Indian J Pharm Sci 65: 180-183.

Google Scholar

7. Verma PRP, Razdan B (2003) Studies on Leucaenaleucocephala seed gum: emulsifying properties. J SciInd Res 62: 198-206.

Google Scholar

8. Ibezim C, Khanna M, Sing S (2000) A study of suspending properties of Anacardiumaccidentale gum. J SciInd Res 59: 1038-1043.

Google Scholar

9. Guwthamarajan K, Kulkarni TG, Vijayakumar RS, Suresh B (2003) Evalution of Borassusflabellier mucilage as gelling agent. Indian drugs 40: 640-644.

Google Scholar

10. Kulkarni, Gowthamarajan T G, Brahmajirao BG (2002) Evaluation of binding properties of selected natural mucilage. JSIR 61: 529-532.

Google Scholar

11. Tiwari PN, Kulmi GS (2004) Performance of Chandrasur (Lepidiumsativum) under different levels of nitrogen and phosphorus. J Med Aromatic Plant Sci 26: 479-481.

Google Scholar

12. Avachat AM, Dash RR, Shrotriya SN (2011) Recent investigation of plant based gums, mucilages and resins in novel drug delivery system. IJPR 45: 86-99.

Google Scholar

13. Basu SK (2006) Seed production technology for fenugreek (Trigonellafoenum- graecum L.) in the Canadian. Master of Science Thesis. DeparT  Biological Sci Uni of Lethbridge Alberta Canada 202-269.

Google Scholar

14. Huang H, Zhang S (2006) Flaxseed nutrient composition and application in food industry. Food Res Dev 27: 147-149.

Google Scholar

15. Morris DH (2003) Flax: A Health and Nutrition Primer. 3rd ed Flax Council of Canada Winnipeg MB Canada 11-33.

Google Scholar

16. Shim Y, GUI Y, B Arnison PG, Wang Y, Reaney MJT (2014) Flaxseed (Linumusitatissimum L.) bioactivecompounds and peptide nomenclature: A review. Trends Food Sci Technol 38: 5-20.

Google Scholar

17. Dwek R (1996) Glycobiology, “Towards understanding the function of sugars”. Chemical Review 96: 683- 720.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

18. Ma F Wang, R Li, X Kang, W Bell AW (2020) “ Physical properties of mucilage polysaccharides from dioscoreaOppositaThunb”. Food Chem 311.

Google Scholar

19. Amin El S , Poleologu (1973)  “Phytochemical and Biological Studies of Some Polysaccharides Isolated From Aloe, Tamarindus, Opuntia, and Citrus”. Res 27 (2): 447-50.

Google Scholar

20. Whistler RL (1965) "Methods in carbohydrate chemistry" Academic press New York   London 5: 18-52.

Google Scholar