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| Figure 2: The role of p53 in DNA damage repair and cell fate determination. DNA damage stress activates kinases, such as ATM, ATR, Chk1/2, which stabilize and release p53 from its negative regulator the MDM2 protein complex. Activated p53 are further modified by various modifications, including phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, etc. Modified p53 triggers cells to undergo cell-cycle arrest, either to proliferation after successful DNA repair or senescence without repair. Moreover, p53 can lead to apoptosis when the chromatin damage is too severe. |
